Manouchehr Shaami Nezhad; Hosein Atrak; mohsen jahed
Abstract
The issue of death is one of the most important issues of human existence and one of his existential concerns. From birth to death, humans always carry the anxiety of death with them. Many thinkers have proposed solutions to reduce death anxiety. Yalom and Mulla Sadra have also discussed the nature of ...
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The issue of death is one of the most important issues of human existence and one of his existential concerns. From birth to death, humans always carry the anxiety of death with them. Many thinkers have proposed solutions to reduce death anxiety. Yalom and Mulla Sadra have also discussed the nature of death based on their foundations. Yalom considers death as a pure nothingness and based on a naturalistic approach presents some existential solutions like relying on human communication, creativity, and rippling. Mulla Sadra based on a supernaturalistic approach also considers death as an existentiale. By analyzing his philosophical foundations some solutions like having a transformational and procedural approach to death could be deduced from his philosophy for reducing the anxiety of death. In this research, the authors first compare the views of these two thinkers and then try to find an integrated solution to reducing death anxiety.
Philosophy
fateme soleimani
Abstract
Introduction
An action is an external behavior formed through an interplay between knowledge and inner tendencies, and then actualized via will or volition. On this picture, an action begins from a conception and assent (affirmation) within an epistemic process, leading to decision-making and will. ...
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Introduction
An action is an external behavior formed through an interplay between knowledge and inner tendencies, and then actualized via will or volition. On this picture, an action begins from a conception and assent (affirmation) within an epistemic process, leading to decision-making and will. Several factors, such as the imaginative faculty, the faculty of theoretical and practical reason, the craving faculty, and will, contribute to this process. Accordingly, various types of human action are formed given the order of functioning as well as the intensity and strength of these faculties. Hence, the existence of various possibilities and circumstances for the interactions of these principles demand different models for human action. A consideration and comparison of these factors can play a role in analyzing and explaining the human action as well as presenting various solutions to change, modify, or even reinforce human behaviors. To do so, a survey was conducted in the works of Mullā Ṣadrā deploying the descriptive-analytic method to identify various models of human action and pinpoint their differences and the conditions in which they occur. The main problem of this research is:
What is the fundamental and basic model of the human action and what are the models branching from them?
The secondary questions include the following:
How do models of human action differ from each other and from the model of action in animals?
What is the role of temperament in the model of human actions?
Research Background
Thus far, several studies have been carried out concerning the philosophy of action and how an action is produced within the framework of Mullā Ṣadrā’s philosophy. Rezaee and Houshangi (2013) in “The process of the production of human voluntary action,” Shahgoli (2019) in “Principles of action in the views of Fārābī and Mullā Ṣadrā,” and Mirhadi (2018) in “Philosophy of action in Transcendent philosophy” aim to introduce the principles and preliminaries of action and the stages of the production of an action from the perspective of Muslim philosophers, particularly Mullā Ṣadrā. Vafaeian and Gharamaleki (2017) in “An ontological analysis of the process of the production of actions from the perspectives of Avicenna and Ṣadr al-Mutaʾallihīn” assert that they are concerned with the ontological status of the principles of the production of action. Soleimani (2020) in “The place of action in human existence in Mullā Ṣadrā’s view” provides an account of the formation of action and the longitudinal relationship between its principles, stating that Mullā Ṣadrā views the inner reality of an action as its longitudinal principles, while external action is solely a manifestation and expression of this longitudinal chain of the functioning of perceptual and motive faculties of the soul. Varzdar and Ketabchi (2022) in “The study of the function of practical reason in the process of action production in Transcendent philosophy” are focused on the role of practical reason in the process of the production of actions.
The contribution of the present research, which sets it apart from the above-mentioned studies, is that it addresses the numerous models and schemas of the order and mode of the functioning of the formative principles and elements of action.
Conclusion
When doing an action, the human individual employs the numerous faculties and powers of their soul, including perceptual and motive faculties. Given the order of functioning as well as the intensity and strength of these faculties, various types of human action are formed. Thus, a model and schema can be determined for each type of human action. All conceivable models of human action involve a transition from the cognitive principle to determination, will, and production of the outer overt action. In other words, all varieties of human actions are formed based on a basic model. This foundational model shows the general course of the soul’s linear motion from the highest to the lowest principles that contribute to the actualization of action.
Regarding the basic fundamental model of human action, stages can be devised as follows:
In the first stage, the desired goal and objective are determined by theoretical reason. In the second, the proper action to fulfil the goal is selected and confirmed by practical reason. In the third, the requisite proper urge and motivation are produced by the craving faculty under the governance of practical reason. In the fourth, rational urge prevails and intensifies and then determination and will are formed for doing the action.
In the model of deterministic action, the urge resulting from the confirmation by practical reason is not agreeable to nature, but the action is selected and preferred by the cognitive system and then confirmed by reason. Accordingly, an action not being agreeable is compatible with its volitional and free character.
In the model of animal action, humans just like animals have a presence-based comprehension of an instinctive impulse and need within themselves, then conceive a particular action in their imaginative faculty as well as the pleasure or pain associated with the action, and then through appetitive or irascible faculties, an urge or repulsion towards the action ill be produced in the individual. If the urge is bolstered and prevails, the will to do or omit the action will be formed.
In any event, Ṣadrā believes that urge and will in humans are governed by reason. It is only in this case that the will can be rational and human. However, if the urge and will are governed by instincts, senses, and imagination, which yields a speculative judgment by reason, the will is animal.
When the action occurs, its wanted or unwanted consequences can have an effect on the constitutive elements of the action. This means that they have a reinforcing or undermining effect on instincts and inner impulses, knowledge, desire, and will. Nevertheless, this effect is only indirect. In case there is a positive effect, which reinforces the principles of an action, the action will be repeated frequently. This will lead to a particular psychological habit in the individual, which is called a “temperament” or “character.” According to the principles of Sadraean philosophy, a soul that possesses a temperament changes its substantial form, and given the new stage of its psychological forms, it comes to have new and stronger faculties and powers. Later, the principles of the action will be further solidified and their functioning in inducing actions will be quicker, such that the actions associated with that stage of the soul will be produced more easily.
fereshte abolhassani niaraki
Abstract
By accepting the principle of human mutability, Mulla Sadra considers ethics as something between nature and intellectual will. In other words, he sees the origin of ethics in both nature (creation) and will, and considers it something between these two. Although the forces of human nature have an impact ...
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By accepting the principle of human mutability, Mulla Sadra considers ethics as something between nature and intellectual will. In other words, he sees the origin of ethics in both nature (creation) and will, and considers it something between these two. Although the forces of human nature have an impact on our creation, but they do not compel us to act in a certain way. Instead, humans perform ethical actions through their own intellectual will, and then through practice and habit, they acquire new ethical virtues. The ethical mechanism of humans involves a type of ethical thinking and reasoning that is stimulating to inclinations and emotional organization, which is influenced by the complex interplay of internal forces, external influences, and human will. Internal forces have various cognitive aspects (knowledge and beliefs), inclinations (emotions, feelings, natural tendencies, instincts), and even physical aspects (temperament, nutrition, brain, sensory tools, genetic backgrounds), as well as factors such as the faculties and secondary personality traits, self-purification, and so on, which are foundational and influential in this realm. Various environmental factors, such as the transmission of social or religious laws and norms (through religion/prophets) or modeling (with the influence of mentors, parents, etc.), and environmental consequences and socialization (socializing with others, associating with good people), affect human ethical growth, which is acquired in interaction with the internal-biological-acquired organism
keramat varzdar; fatemeh ketebchi
Abstract
IntroductionMulla Sadra differentiates between "action" and "intentional action". He considers the intentional action as an action, which is caused by second-order consciousness of the purpose of the action (Mulla Sadra 1981, 2/223). His interpretation of this second-order consciousness is "awareness ...
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IntroductionMulla Sadra differentiates between "action" and "intentional action". He considers the intentional action as an action, which is caused by second-order consciousness of the purpose of the action (Mulla Sadra 1981, 2/223). His interpretation of this second-order consciousness is "awareness of purpose" (Mulla Sadra undated, 69). According to him, the voluntary Agent is different from the intentional Agent. An intentional Agent is an Agent who not only intends to perform the action, but also has second-order consciousness of the purpose of the action (Mulla Sadra, 1354, 134); That is, he knows what he is doing and what purpose he is trying to achieve. This second-order consciousness leads to the transformation of action into intentional action and the feeling of free will.It seems that this ability is specific to the human soul and the faculties that is specific to this soul. The basic issue of this research is the analysis of the role of "practical reason" as a consciousness-creating factor in this process - that is, the process of converting a "voitional act" into an "intentional action" - in Mulla Sadra's philosophy. For this purpose, by searching in the works of Mulla Sadra, the authors try to evaluate the functions of "practical reason" in the process of issuing action and reveal its position as an "consciousness-creating factor" among the principles of action.Methods and MaterialThe research method of this paper is descriptive-analytical method. In this way, by referring to the different works of Mulla Sadra, the authors try to provide a complete description of his opinions. Then, by analyzing his opinions based on logical requirements, it is tried to discover the functions of practical reason in the process of intentional action in Mulla Sadra's philosophy. Results and DiscussionThe element of "second-order consciousness", which is the condition for turning a voluntary action into an "intentional action", is one of the characteristics of the human soul, and animals lack such an element (Mulla sadra 1981, 6/312). In other words, animal souls have perception through their faculties; but they don't have second-order consciousness to their faculties and their perceptions; but the human soul has the ability to aware of the "self" and "its faculties” as a part of its perception (Mulla sadra 1981, 6/251). This feature is achieved by "reason faculty" for this soul (Mulla sadra 1363, 133-132). It seems that practical reason with three functions transforms voitional act into intentional action and brings second-order consciousness to a person.The first function of practical reason is the positive function. According to Mulla Sadra, the only faculty that creates particular mental forms is not the “imaginal faculty”; Rather, the practical reason has also the ability to create them (Mulla sadra 1363, 516-516). According to him, the affirmation of benefits is done in the imaginary level by the imaginal faculty and in the rational level by the practical reason (Mulla sadra 1382, 2/1037). The rational level here does not mean general mental forms, because Mulla Sadra points out that decision of doing an action always require partial mental forms (Mulla sadra 1363, 516) and he states also that practical reason is the ability to perceive practical mental forms (Mulla sadra 1360, 200).The second function of "practical reason" refers to the judgment about the practical mental forms that the imaginal faculty has acknowledged their usefulness. In his sensory and imaginary encounters with the real world, a person creates images of action. When the imaginal faculty creates a practical image in the imagination and decides to issue it based on nature of body; practical reason evaluates its acceptance, and it judges the goodness and badness of that partial practical judgment based on general normative patterns (Mulla sadra 1354, 261).The third function of "practical reason" in the process of issuing an intentional action is managing the imaginary passions of a person towards performing an action. This role-playing actually occurs at a time when the imaginal faculty orders the performance of action A and in this way, arouses the lust or anger of a person to do it. This function is different from the previous function; because the practical reason in the previous function used to make judgments about the decision of the imaginal faculty; But in this function, practical reason manage lust or anger which is the result of the decision of the imaginal faculty. Mulla Sadra referred to this function as "caring" (Mulla sadra 1981, 3/419). ConclusionIn transcendental wisdom, the Reason is a self-aware power; this means that it can rationalize itself and achieve second-order self-consciousness. The Reason rationalizes not only itself, but also other perceptive and practical powers. Rationalizing here is not the understanding of the general mental form, but the acquisition of second-order consciousness.According to Mulla Sadra, "intentional action" is different from "voluntary action" because "intentional action" is an action that is the result of the will along with the "second-order consciousness of the agent" for the purpose of the action. According to the this explanation, the element of "second-order consciousness" is an element that is obtained by adding "practical reason" to the principles of action; Therefore, "intentional action" is a voluntary action in which "practical reason" plays a role in its process.Practical reason with three different functions brings second-order consciousness to the human soul: imagining particular and practical mental forms, acknowledging its usefulness and managing perceptual and motivational other faculties.
Philosophy
vahid khademzadeh; Fatemeh Kanaani
Abstract
Introduction:In the framework of the conceptual metaphor theory, abstract concepts are understood by conceptual metaphors so that by removing these metaphors, a large part of the meaning of these concepts is lost. Therefore, these metaphors don't have only an educational or aesthetic role but also our ...
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Introduction:In the framework of the conceptual metaphor theory, abstract concepts are understood by conceptual metaphors so that by removing these metaphors, a large part of the meaning of these concepts is lost. Therefore, these metaphors don't have only an educational or aesthetic role but also our understanding and even our behavior are based on such metaphors. In this theory, metaphors are inseparable parts of scientific and philosophical theories.The human mind and how it works has been one of the greatest philosophical and scientific mysteries in the history of thought. Various theories have been offered throughout history about the nature of the mind. In the context of conceptual metaphor theory, it can be said that these theories are based on various conceptual metaphors; Some of these metaphors have been universal and some have belonged to a particular culture and age. For example, "mind as a container" is a common metaphor among different ages and cultures. In the context of this metaphor, the mind has a definite boundary that distinguishes the mind world from the outside world. Metaphors such as "mind as machine" and "mind as computer" were considered in contemporary analytical philosophy. Each of these metaphors highlights only one aspect of the concept of mind and inevitably hides the others. The mind can not be reduced to any of these metaphors.One of the functions of the mind is to acquire knowledge. Various metaphors have been proposed to describe this mind function. One of the most important of these metaphors is the "knowing as seeing" metaphor. This metaphor has roots in human common experience in the childhood period. So, this metaphor is accepted in different cultures and Languages. In addition to its existence in everyday and customary language, this metaphor has also found its way into philosophical and mystical texts.One of the Muslim philosophical innovations is to introduce intuitive knowledge as one of the types of knowledge. Since intuitive knowledge is not available to ordinary people, the linguistic systems have not developed specific words and terms to describe such knowledge. This makes it impossible to describe and explain such knowledge literally. Therefore, Mulla Sadra has used conceptual metaphors to describe intuitive knowledge. One of the most important of these metaphors is the "knowing as seeing" metaphor. This metaphor has been developed in Sadra's system and many sub-metaphors have been formed under this metaphor.In this study, the role of this metaphor in Sadra's philosophical system and its various dimensions are examined.Methods and MaterialsWords literally refer to one of the elements related to the act of seeing, which were discovered and extracted in Sadra's texts. Most of these words have been used to describe intuitive knowledge. Then, these words were categorized and the conceptual metaphors, associated with them, were introduced.Results and discussionIn the act of seeing, three elements are distinguishable: seer, seeable, and relation between them. Each of the three elements is used to explain intuitive knowledge by other sub-metaphors; “Knower as Seer”, “Known as Seeable” and “Quality of Knowing as Relation between Seer and Seeable” metaphors are defined below the “Knowing as Seeing” metaphor. The “Knower as Seer” metaphor has the sub-metaphors of "the quality of the knower as the purity or pollution of the seer" and "ignorance as blindness". The “Quality of Knowing as Relation between Seer and Seeable” metaphor has the sub-metaphors of "obstacles to acquiring knowledge as obstacles to seeing", "intensity and weakness of knowledge as the seer's proximity, and remoteness from the seeable".ConclusionsThe "knowing as seeing" metaphor is an inseparable part of the theory of knowledge in Mulla Sadra's philosophy; In Sadra's thought, knowledge of the essence of God is not possible, and on the other hand, God is described as the light of lights, which is the most visible being. Mulla Sadra uses one of the conventional human experiences to reconcile these two propositions. In conventional human experience, the sun is the brightest object, but the intensity of light in the sun prevents man from seeing it directly. Mulla Sadra maps this conventional experience into the supernatural world and introduces the intensity of divine light as an obstacle to the intuitive observation of the divine essence.In the popular view among Muslim philosophers, rational perception is the understanding of general concepts, but Mulla Sadra considered rational perception as the observation of beings who are present in the intellectual world. However, Mulla Sadra has used this conceptual metaphor to adapt his theory to the popular view. He introduces the distant observation of intellectual beings as the cause of the formation of general concepts in the human mind; because, in conventional human experience, distant observation is accompanied by ambiguity. This ambiguity causes the concept formed in the mind to be able to adapt to several instances.Blindness due to light intensity and distant observation clearly shows the vital role of the "knowing as seeing" metaphor in Mulla Sadra's epistemological system.
Philosophy
ali mostajeran; ali arshad Riahi
Abstract
Introduction Mirza Javad Tehrani is one of the followers of the school of Tafkik and had been strongly influenced by the thoughts of Mirza Mehdi Isfahani and Sheikh Hadi Tehrani. According to school of Tafkik, the use of rational and philosophical methods has no place in proving or explaining ...
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Introduction Mirza Javad Tehrani is one of the followers of the school of Tafkik and had been strongly influenced by the thoughts of Mirza Mehdi Isfahani and Sheikh Hadi Tehrani. According to school of Tafkik, the use of rational and philosophical methods has no place in proving or explaining religious teachings. Also, one of the reasons, given by the deniers of the Sadra's philosophy is that this philosophy takes contradictory approach, and therefore they accuse the transcendent philosophy of methodological eclecticism. But Tehrani by proving the fundamental reality of quiddity and using it for the issue of monotheism, has confirmed the use of philosophical and rational discussions in the religious teachings. Tehrani by proposing eight critiques, he has criticized the principles and arguments of the fundamental reality of existence, and consequently, he considers the issue of essential monotheism to be provable only by the principles of the fundamental reality of quiddity. As for the background of the present research, the only article that has been published on this subject is "Critique of the arguments of the fundamental reality of existence in the thought of Mirza Javad Tehrani" by Hossein Soheili (Soheili and others، 1398) in the journal of Hikmat Muaser. The present research is structurally, contently and basically, from four aspects, different from this research.Research MethodIn this article the authors, firstly, relying on the descriptive method and analysis of the content, have studied and evaluated eight Tehrani’s critiques on the fundamental reality of existence. Consequently, it is specified that the origin of Tehrani's attitude to explaining the provable characteristic of the Essence of the Necessary Being, in order to support the principles of the fundamental reality of quiddity, is that he did not distinguish between acceptance of requirement and acceptance of causality regarding the Essence of the Necessary Being. On the other hand, it has been cleared that, relying on the Tehrani’s view -criticizing the fundamental reality of existence and strengthening the fundamental reality of quiddity- it is not possible to give a convincing answer to Ibn Kamuna's doubt and the arguments of the monotheism of Essence, attributes and actions envisage problem. But relying on the Sadra's fundamental reality of existence, although God is not a special being of any quiddity, to require His possibility, the supreme Divine Existence possesses all perfect entities. Accordingly, firstly, the existential attributes of creatures are attributed to God in the status of the act, not in the status of the Essence. Secondly, they are attributed to God in that they are existences. Therefore, it can be acknowledged that although creatures have perfections, there is no perfection other than the perfection of God. According to this interpretation, philosophical purification will not be in conflict with the appearance of verses and hadiths that limit existential attributes as well as activity and influence in God alone or attributed the actions of the creature to God.According to Tehrani, the adherents of the fundamental reality of existence believe that the truth of external objects is existence and the truth of existence is not something like other objects, so it cannot be perceived by the five senses, but its perception is possible with intuition. According to the authors' research, Tehrani, since he could not perceive the truth of existence with empirical knowledge, inevitably considered what he perceives with his five senses as truth, and finally came to believe that what exists externally is quiddity.Consequences These consequences are resulted from this article: 1- Tehrani’s criticisms on the fundamental reality of existence are not correct. In some positions, he quoted the words of the predecessors of the adherents of the fundamental reality of quiddity, and in other cases, he did not accept the principles of the adherents of the fundamental reality of quiddity. There are two central points in most of Tehran's criticisms: Firstly, he did not have a correct idea of how the object and the subject correspond to each other, because he considered the concrete to be a container-like reality in which external beings have taken place, while the subject and the subjective are the same thing, as well as object and objective are the same thing. Secondly, in most cases, he has meant what the adherents of the fundamental reality of existence mean, but in order to escape from this thesis, he has adhered to the fundamental reality of quiddity. 2- Considering the difference between requirement and causality, which is based on the fundamental reality of existence, the Essence of the Necessary Being can be considered as possessor of requirement, without any causality, because considering the issue of causality, the Essence of the Necessary Being will have caused and otherness of existence and quiddity in the contingents indicates the essential dependence of the contingent on the cause, but the sameness of existence and quiddity in the Necessary Being indicates the non-dependence of the Essence of Necessary Being on the cause, since His Essence is His Existence. But according to the fundamental reality of quiddity, relying on the unification of requirement and causality, in the Essence of the Necessary Being, the main problem is that the Essence of the Necessary Being can no longer be considered the Necessary Being of all aspects.
Philosophy
Nafiseh Nojaba; Mahdi Qiasvand
Abstract
Abstract IntroductionContemporary models of "specific divine actions", mostly and regardless of differences, have shaken with three metaphysical commitments, namely "The incompatibility of the divine act and the act of nature", "God's non-intervention" and also "the prescriptiveness of the ...
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Abstract IntroductionContemporary models of "specific divine actions", mostly and regardless of differences, have shaken with three metaphysical commitments, namely "The incompatibility of the divine act and the act of nature", "God's non-intervention" and also "the prescriptiveness of the laws of nature". What the following paper examines among these assumptions, is the first commitment or assumption. Neo-Thomism poses a serious challenge to the premises of incompatibilism within the frame of contemporary scientific theories and the only solution is to present alternative model. Nevertheless, the duality of nature and the supernatural as a common facet of compatibilism and incompatibilism is a berrier to both models providing a plausible explanation. Although, neo-Thomism s argument about longitudinal God–nature relationship fails to meet all expectations and they are faced with the dilemma between Deism and the denial of non-divine agency. Breaking the ontological boundaries between nature and the supernatural, there seem to be a possible solution to the dilemma. It seems monistic approach of Sadra developed two systems of unity “Tashkiky” and “Shakhsi” can be a solution to this problem. Thus, this essay examines Sadra argument to address the problem arised by “compatibilism” approach. MethodThis article is written in a descriptive-analytical method based on Mulla Sadra's principles.Results and DiscussionIn what follows, to address the issue by relying on Sadra s argument, firstly, double causality, causal closure and the difficulty of explanation of the supernatural effect on nature which makes difficult to explain “special divine action” in the frame of “compatibilism” approach, will be analysed. Sadra theory and Thomistic view have tried to solve the problem through rejecting causal duality, that is, they deny the adequacy of physical causes. The possibility of the supernatural effect on nature by excluding the ontological aspects between them is one of the significant components provided by this paper. Given the key role of the concept of “existence” and “essence” in Sadra and Thomistic view in explanation of the supernatural and nature, by appealing to different versions of Sadra s argument about “Asalat al-wujud” and Thomistic view, analysis of the relationships between these two concepts has been done. Finally, it is argued that the dualistic approach of Thomistic view and one of the version of “Asalat al-wujud” which is the identity of “existence” and “essence” fail to prove the possibility of the effect of the supernatural on nature. However, there are two other versions of “Asala al-wujud” can provide the solution to this problem.ConclusionWhat is suggested in this paper is only to show the power of Sadra s theory in breaking of the ontological boundaries between nature and Supernatural. Even two systems of “tashkiky unity” and “shakhsi unity” support this possibility. To solve the problem of “special divine action” through the breaking of the ontological aspects requires to be committed to components such as, the adequacy of the natural sciences, the laws of nature and noninterventionism commitment.
sepideh razi
Abstract
One of the most significant issues in anthropology is the relationship between two major aspects of human life: soul and corpus. A review over philosophical texts from the early Greek era to the present time reveals the fact that soul’s relationship with the corpus is and has always been concerning ...
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One of the most significant issues in anthropology is the relationship between two major aspects of human life: soul and corpus. A review over philosophical texts from the early Greek era to the present time reveals the fact that soul’s relationship with the corpus is and has always been concerning philosophers. However, over time, separation of sciences and their narrowed down branches brought made it particularly interesting for other branches of science like embryology, psychology, parapsychology, etc. The main focus of this study is human genesis since his presence in the material world which is scrutinized through philosophical views of Ibn Sina and Mulla Sadra and comparing their views with embryological theories of Thomas W. Sadler as a prominent theoretician in the field. Conception and order of formation of body organs, parents’ influence on embryo and their relationship, the time of acquiring soul and the issue of protective and exhaustive are among the points discussed in this study in order to make a better evaluation of the issue under study.Several theories have been developed on the formation of the first organ by eminent thinkers all of which could be culminated. If veins and nerves are considered as organs, they will be the first ones; otherwise, the heart is the initiator of embryogenesis. Ibn Sina concords with the second part of medical theories; however, regardless of the differences in views of Mulla Sadra on the genesis of the first organ, if the liver is the beginning point for veins and nerves, then, he will go with the first theory. For Ibn Sina, heart is the first organ for he believes that it is the origin of heat. Nevertheless, in some of his works, Mulla Sadra states the heart to be the first organ; yet, if the criteria for his selection is an overall look at his works, brain has to be considered as the initiator of embryogenesis due to its inherent priority and since liver as the origin of veins is formed earlier. Both of these approaches, however, contradict with the ideas Ibn Sina had on this issue. In the case of formation of other body organs, there seems to be almost no difference in views of these two philosophers on chronological order and for both of them, the other one’s first is the second one. Yet, Mulla Sadra’s views are supported more strongly by medical views of the modern world. This is due to the fact that, Ibn Sina puts the formation of veins and nerves two steps behind compared to the findings of modern medicine.Regarding the method and time of attachment of soul to the embryo, Ibn Sina takes the time when heart is completely formed as the time when embryo gains the intellective soul. Yet, based on his own principles, Mulla Sadra believes that when the embryo is formed, the fetus is of signs of "plant life”. In other words, the fetus at this stage eats and grows; however, it lacks sense and movement as the signs of “animal life” and intellectual perception as the main sign of “human life”. As the embryo evolves inside its mother’s womb, its aptitudes are realized and this gives it an animal soul and later on other human life traits are gradually flourished. Embryology findings of modern medicine reveal that fetus receives the essence of life from its parents and it is the beginning of birth and growth of a new creature. Thus, fetus is a living creature of life right from the conception. This concord well with the trans-substantial motion theory of Mulla Sadra. Accordingly, acquisition of soul from Mulla Sadra’s point of view and medical perspective coordinate well considering their views on the first organ of primary stages of soul and life even in their faintest forms. Views and ideas of these two philosophers on creation of soul and the protective and exhaustive factor are different. Ibn Sina believes that soul of parents is vicariously protective and exhaustive so that at first, the soul of mother is the collection of elements and creator of nature, then in the middle, mineral face or the born soul is exhaustive and protective with the aid of mother’s soul and finally the born soul becomes independent. Mulla Sadra denies this and believes that delegation in various affairs is in contractual affairs and not in real and inherent ones. For him, exhaustiveness of body organs is neither the souls of parents nor the soul of embryo but is the nutrition substances which collect the necessary and required components in its essence due to the trans-substantial motion and inherent perfection and is even more perfect and transforms as time passes and this is the plant soul of the embryo which protects it until the time comes for it to be qualified to gain the potential to show animal behavior beside above-mentioned deeds and behaviors. At this moment, human body is evolved and becomes legible to acquire intellective soul with which not only mineral deeds are conducted along with plant and animal behavior, but contemplation and perception also occur as the intellectual soul. Modern medical findings solve the problem of exhaustiveness of the embryo since they take fetus as a living creature; however, the concept of protectiveness as it is discussed in philosophy is of no ground in embryology and the only mention of it is made about the role the mother and her body has in protecting the fetus conceived in her womb. Mother’s body acts as a home and a system feeding and protecting the fetus and since it is the site for the nurture of a creature named human, her temperament and spiritual state will have their influence of the embryo.In conclusion, an overall evaluation of these views reveals that ontological principles of Mulla Sadra to elaborate on embryogenesis and the life of human embryo concord much better with modern findings of embryology as a science in comparison to the ones developed by Ibn Sina.No study has investigated the relationship between soul and corpus from this point of view. The method utilized in this study was documentary analysis using library resources. The references used in this study were all original texts including The Canon of Medicine, Book of Knowledge for Ala al-Dawla, Soul, etc. by Ibn Sina, The Transcendent theosophy in the Four Journeys of the Intellect, etc. by Mulla Sadra and Langman's Medical Embryology by Thomas W. Sadler.
somayeh malleki; Mahdi Emami Jome; nafiseh ahl sarmadi
Abstract
Introduction: Superficial theology and superficial understanding of religion, as a current of thought and belief throughout the history of Islam, has been presented in the form of various ideas and has been influential in social, cultural and moral fields. Mulla Sadra (979-1050 AH) in most of ...
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Introduction: Superficial theology and superficial understanding of religion, as a current of thought and belief throughout the history of Islam, has been presented in the form of various ideas and has been influential in social, cultural and moral fields. Mulla Sadra (979-1050 AH) in most of his works enters into the study and critique of this trend and its consequences in the society of his time. The main issue for him is the critique of superficial theology, which has limited the understanding of religion to the apparent level of texts and religious practice to individual jurisprudence. In most of his works, Mulla Sadra has criticized this kind of understanding of religion and believes that if we put all our efforts in grammar, we cannot provide a correct understanding of religion and religious texts. Therefore, one of the main axes of Sadra's thought is the critique of this type of understanding and the study of its social, political, moral and cultural consequences. In this study, we will conclude that if the ostensible understanding of religion prevails in society, the false moral values will prevail in society, and therefore the people of society will move towards cultural and moral decline every day. Basically, the goal of religion and morality is to value human beings and life. In fact, it should be said that from Mulla Sadra's point of view, there can be a significant relationship between this kind of understanding and interpretation of religion on the one hand and ethics, culture, people and even social and political sovereignty in a society on the other hand. Based on our best knowledge, no article or book has been written independently on the subject of this article in Persian, Arabic and English. However, we can indirectly use the following works to some extent; Emami Jome (2012) in an article entitled Hermeneutic Horizons of Transcendent Wisdom and Social, Cultural Mulla Sadra has studied the hermeneutic foundations of transcendent wisdom and its historical, social and cultural mission. Also, Arshad Riahi and Tabatabai (2016) in an article as strategies for reviving morality in society from the perspective of Sadr al-Muta'allehin to examine the strategies for reviving morality in societies that have been ruled by moral depravity or in the path of separation from values. Divine morality has been established, paid for. Method and Material: In this study, we have assumed that from Mulla Sadar's point of view, there is a significant relationship between a superficial understanding and interpretation of religion and moral, cultural and social issues. To prove this hypothesis, we had a comprehensive overview on documentary, library and content analysis and descriptive methods. Results and Discussion: The type of knowledge of societies about religion is influential in the ethics and culture of the society. Mulla Sadra has had a special view on this issue. He considers religious communities to be prone to religious violence due to the superficiality of scholars also he beleives that unreal scholars at any time, under the support of their rulers, have interpreted the verses of the Qur'an superficially in accordance with their thoughts and ideas, and in fact have imposed their opinions and prejudices on the Qur'an in order to achieve their goals. They have hired religion. The result of using unrealistic scholars for the government is that the government gains legitimacy through them,Therefore, it should be said that Mulla Sadra expresses the situation of his time not only as a complaint but also as a lesson. and it seems that his main concern to be about the future. Basically, the goal of morality should be to value human beings and their lives, and to stand against God's creatures is against human values, and Mulla Sadra pays special attention to this issue. According to Mulla Sadra, as science and knowledge spread in the society, the cultural, moral and existential perfection of the citizens increases and vice versa. If we want to express Mulla Sadra's conception of his time correctly, we must say that in his opinion, his time was a time of decline and a kind of deviation from the main path of human life. Although he could not take a step towards social, cultural and moral education due to the social conditions of his time, but today, with the help of his views, it is possible to provide the necessary and appropriate social, cultural and moral contexts. In this area, it is necessary to pay attention to the material, spiritual and planning needs for the cultural and moral flourishing of Islamic societies at the same time. As a result, it should be said that Mulla Sadra's philosophy is not just a collection of dry philosophical topics; rather, it is a coherent, well-founded, purposeful, dynamic, and practical system of thought, and if its content is considered, it can have a positive impact on human individual and social life. Conclusion: The type of societies' knowledge of religion influences the ethics and culture of that society. Lack of a rational approach to religion can severely adversely affect the family, society, culture, and moral system. Mulla Sadra considers religious communities to be prone to religious violence due to the superficiality of scholars. Unrealistic scholars in every age and time, under the protection of their rulers, have interpreted the verses of the Qur'an superficially according to their thoughts and ideas, and in fact, instead of interpreting the Qur'an, they have imposed their opinions and prejudices on the Qur'an. They have used religion to achieve their goals, as a result of which Mulla Sadra considers the mixing of imperfect scholars with sages and sultans as the cause of any sedition that has taken place in religion. Because religious scholars have a deep-rooted spiritual base among the people, the government can increase its popularity among the people by approaching unrealistic scholars. Mulla Sadra describes the situation of his time not only as a complaint but also as a lesson, and it seems that Mulla Sadra's main concern is with the future.
Ali Torabi; zeynab sadeghi; mehran najafi; zahra lotfi
Abstract
Introduction Two complicated and difficult problems in the Islamic philosophy are knowledge and intellect. These were of great significance to philosophers from Plato and Aristotle to such Muslim philosophers as Avicenna, Fakhr al-Razi, Suhrawardi, and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi as well as to the Schools ...
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Introduction Two complicated and difficult problems in the Islamic philosophy are knowledge and intellect. These were of great significance to philosophers from Plato and Aristotle to such Muslim philosophers as Avicenna, Fakhr al-Razi, Suhrawardi, and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi as well as to the Schools of Shiraz and Isfahan. Following them, Mulla Sadra raised the question of knowledge throughout his philosophical work. As the Sadrai thought is still dynamic and can be pursued, examined, critiqued or reconstructed, Muslim thinkers continue to publish their research in the form of books, dissertations, and articles on the issue of knowledge and the intellect. It goes without saying that in order to prevent doing what others already do or have already done the evolution of research on a problem needs to be brought to the researcher’s attention. Therefore, literature plays an important role in the research process, and the present article intends to assist researchers on Mulla Sadra with the literature review. It goes over scientific productions in the area of dissertations and articles from 2001 to 2020 on the subject of knowledge in Sadra’i philosophy. This includes 218 works, out of which 85 articles, 32 master’s degree dissertations and 9 PhD theses are written in the field of the intellect. Master’s degree dissertations and PhD theses on the subject of knowledge are 35 and 9 titles respectively, which does not show a marked difference to the field of the intellect. This is while the articles in the field of knowledge are 45 titles i.e. half as many as the articles written in the field of intellect. The research method As a systematic review, using the search engines and data bases such as Noormags, Comprehensive Portal of Human Sciences, Magiran, and the Treasure System (sāmāni-yi ganj) in the Iranian Research Institute for Information, Science and Technology (IranDoc), and Islamic World Science Citation Center (ISC), this article has searched titles of articles, dissertations, and PhD theses and conducted a statistical study of those Farsi titles written between 2001 and 2020 in Iran in the areas of knowledge and intellect in Mulla Sadra’s transcendent wisdom. A discussion of results More attention has been paid to the question of knowledge than that of the intellect. Within the subject of knowledge, discussions of divine knowledge are of the highest frequency, but less attention has been paid to the levels of the Creator’s knowledge and the status of the Creator’s knowledge in creation, or, to put it the other way, to the levels of knowledge in parallel to the levels of creation. When it comes to theology in the more specific sense, less attention has been paid to the knowledge-led Shia theology versus power-led Sunni theology, and the basics and results of such a discussion are not examined. Within the subject of intellect, discussions of the epistemology of the intellect are of the highest frequency, whereas less attention has been paid to various meanings and usages of the intellect in Islamic sciences including theosophy, philosophy, ethics, and to their distinction from the intellect in common parlance. Conclusion Among the conclusions is that there are methodological limitations: lack of attention to a needs assessment in the process of deciding research topics; lack of proper attention to other researchers’ findings (which leads up to many problems including repetitious work and lack of attention to certain topics, as witnessed by the results of the present study); lack of variety in the articles (for the most part, they are written for academic research journals, while a helpful research activity of high efficiency and influence relies on a whole variety of introductory studies, including reviews, which are visibly missing in the field of Islamic philosophy); and finally the lack of information about research activities in the field in the international arena and even Islamic countries.
Mohsen Habibi; Fatemeh Karimi Mazidi
Abstract
One of the important issues of the field of religious studies in contemporary times is the ability to understanding the language of religion. those who belive that this language is understandable, they are against each other that this is the common sense(all being intelligible) or the mysterious and ...
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One of the important issues of the field of religious studies in contemporary times is the ability to understanding the language of religion. those who belive that this language is understandable, they are against each other that this is the common sense(all being intelligible) or the mysterious and symbolic.Mulla Sadra has paid attention to the exegesis of the Qur'an, therefore he has paid attention to some kind of language of religion. He considers ontology the only existence as genuine, in the sense that he sees only the existence of reality.In addition, he believes in Gradation of being, that is, existence is a unic fact and with intensity and weakness.He emphasizes the dignity of knowledge in the language of religion.Because he considers the Qur'an to be far-reaching, he supposes the external language of the Qur'an as a symbol of their inner meanings, and because of the mysterious nature of the Quranic verses and the words of the elders of religion, they give them appearance ,inwardness, exegesis and interpretation.And believes that anything in addition to appearance has an esoteric, so that the appearance and the inner one are twice as many as an object.In his view, there are no fundamental contradictions between the inner meanings of the apparent meaning and therefore the interpretation which appears to contradict it, interprets the vote (without foundation).He also believes that the purpose of the "Truth"is a unit that can be obtained through three ways of revelation (Quran)and rational analyzes (proofs) and refinement of the soul (mysticism).
Amir Delzendehnezhad; Yadollah Rostami
Abstract
In this article we examine the commonalities between some epistemological views of Mulla Sadra (circa 1571-1636) from Persia and Nishida Kitaro from Japan (1870-1945). Our research method was descriptive and analytical, and using the two philosophers’ main texts we compared their ideas and remarks. ...
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In this article we examine the commonalities between some epistemological views of Mulla Sadra (circa 1571-1636) from Persia and Nishida Kitaro from Japan (1870-1945). Our research method was descriptive and analytical, and using the two philosophers’ main texts we compared their ideas and remarks. Although Nishida Kitaro still has not been properly introduced in Iran, during the 2010s efforts were made to do so, including studies conducted by Dr. Muhammad Asghari, which were first published as a few articles, and later collected in the form of a book released in 2017 by Quqnus Publications. Until now there has been no comparative study of the two thinkers in terms of particular epistemological subjects. We can nonetheless refer to a kindred study: Muhammad Asghari’s article entitled “The Possibility of Dialogue between the Kyoto School and Islamic Wisdom” in which he concludes that the dialogue is indeed possible. It might be asked what theoretical and practical uses finding commonalities between two philosophers from two different countries might have. The answer is that it can lay the ground for a universal and combinational philosophy and/or pave the way for mutual understanding and dialogue in meta-history. Prevailing in this universal and combinational philosophy is a macro and integral rather than micro and differential view. The type of comparison which pays more attention to commonalities than differences proposes an intercultural formulation of philosophical questions. The questions intended to be answered in this article are as follows. 1. What are the commonalities between the ontological foundations of the two thoughts? 2. What are their commonalities in terms of the process of knowledge and perception of the world? The two thinkers have common ontological foundations and their epistemologies are based on ontology. We explain in the form of comparative statements the commonalities first in their ontologies and then in their epistemologies. Their common ontological foundations In Nishida reality is identical to consciousness, and in Mulla Sadra being is concomitant (mūsawīq) with knowledge. In Nishida reality has an ultimate foundation from which all the beings are created. In Mulla Sadra the Necessary Being (wājīb al-wūjūd) creates beings. In Nishida the foundation of reality is in a place called Basho, which is neither physical nor determined. Nor does it have a form. It is absolute nothingness, yet not nothingness versus being, but rather a transcendental nothingness from which being is created. In Mulla Sadra the Necessary Essence does not have any determination and form, but rather is unconditional and free from any limits or denotations. Its status is the status of the absolute unseen. For Nishida entities and beings are the actualization and manifestation of that ultimate foundation, and also for Mulla Sadra the Necessary Being, which is pure being, has manifestations and actions, so that beings are actualized. Human consciousness in Nishida’s view is the best place for the manifestation of the ultimate, and in Mulla Sadra’s the human soul is described as God-like. Their common epistemological views Nishida thinks that a process beyond the soul, more transcendental than the soul, is involved in the process of knowledge, which can be called the field of knowledge or the unconscious dimension of knowledge. For Mulla Sadra, the active intellect, which is more transcendental than the soul, is involved in human perceptions. The soul is not passive in the process of knowing the reality and perceptional forms have subsistence by emergence (al-qīyām al-ṣūdūrī) from the soul, the agency of the soul having a part in the process. According to both thinkers the realities of the percipient and perceived are unified and there is no duality between the two. They both believe that human beings construct and shape themselves through their own activities, and that reality is manifested in the soul. In Nishida, the truth and falsity and correspondence with reality are attributes of propositional and conceptual knowledge, and in Mulla Sadra those are attributes of acquired knowledge (al-īlm al-ḥuṣūlī). Both concur that the perfect soul is less weakened by obstacles and gains more intuition of reality.
mahbobeh rajaei; seyd morteza hosseini shahroudi; Abbas Javareshkyan
Abstract
In Mulla Sadra’s work, we encounter two different meanings of the terms substance and accident. One is the well-known meaning according to which contingent beings divide into substances and accidents: like first philosophers Mulla Sadra defines substance as a being not in the subject, and accident ...
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In Mulla Sadra’s work, we encounter two different meanings of the terms substance and accident. One is the well-known meaning according to which contingent beings divide into substances and accidents: like first philosophers Mulla Sadra defines substance as a being not in the subject, and accident as a being in the subject. More precisely, substance is a quiddity which is not in the subject, not a property of something else, and accident is a quiddity in the subject, not needed by the subject, a property of something else. Thus, from this point of view both substance and accident are quiddities. God falls into neither of the two above defined categories, because in the division it is the quiddity which is divided; hence Mulla Sadra considers “non-substance” as a negative divine attribute, providing some arguments for his claim. He proposes another meaning for the duality of substance and accident founded upon components of his own philosophy such as the primacy of existence (asālat al-wūjūd), hypostatic unity of being (waḥdat shakhsī wūjūd), and ontological indigence (faqr wūjūdi). Based on the primacy of existence, he redefines quiddity as a shade (ẓīl) of existence. Therefore, quiddity is not divided into substance and accident, but the latter two are both existential. Next, invoking the principle of hypostatic unity of being, he states that it is only the true unified Being who deserves the title substance, describing as accidents other beings which are his manifestations. Through explaining ontological indigence he also proves that the realization of indigent existence depends on rich existence and compared to him everything in the universe is pure dependence (rabṭ) and mere indigence, and considered a mode and manifestation of him. The substance is he who is independent and essentially rich, and the rest which are the manifestation of dependence count as accidents. Mulla Sadra matches the two meanings together. Everything in the universe is a manifestation of a particular name of God. Thus, just as parts of the universe are divided into genus, species, individuals, and substances, so the division is found in the names of God; and just as the truth of substances is veiled by accidents, so the divine essence is veiled by its names and attributes; and just as attributes such as species - some of which are more general and some more particular as with close and distant species and their correlatives – together with which the substance is a particular genus or type, so some of divine attributes are more general and more permeating and some more particular and less permeating. Each of the innumerable beings in the universe which are its parts is a manifestation of a particular name among divine names; and just as parts of the universe divide into genus, species, individuals, substances, and accidents (including quantity, quality, relation, habitus, time, location, situation (or position), action, and passion ("being acted on)), so the names of God divide into genus, species, substantial, accidental, etc. names. Everything in the visible universe is a shade testifying to what is in the invisible the world of names, as the manifestation of the substantiality of the Creator, called Allah by Mulla Sadra, is “the perfect man” In the light of foundations specific to his philosophy, Mulla Sadra’s novel explanation demonstrates that the duality of substance and accident both make sense and have examples in the external world (although in his wisdom in accordance with the well-known meaning of the terms an immediate cognition of substance is not possible, and it is only accidents which are knowable). But also his analysis paves the way for the demonstration of dependent existence (i.e. the existence of beings which are not God). If considered in comparison to the Necessary, everything is dependent, or, accidental, as Mulla Sadra calls it. The impact of the concept of dependence (or accidentality) upon philosophical discussions is that it dispenses with the need for quiddities and linking quiddity-bound concepts to the concepts not bound by quiddity. Thanks to the analysis, the fact of God being together with names and attributes (called accidents by Mulla Sadra) takes on a novel interpretation: it is not like the coincidence of the accidental and essential; nor like the coincidence of substance and accident in the well-known sense of the terms; nor like the coincidence of quiddity and existence, because God is not a general quiddity at all. Instead, his truth is a pure, simple, sacred Being that has no names, shapes or limits, and for which no proof is invoked. Rather, he is the proof for everything, a witness to every manifestation. The main concern of this article is to compare, examine and match the two views, since despite the fact that there are numerous books and articles addressing the issue of substance and accident, there is not a discrete study of the two perspectives; hence the necessity of explaining Mulla Sadra’s view. Because this aim is fulfilled through studying and researching into his books, the present article’s research method is conceptual analysis written in an analytic-descriptive form.
malihe khodabande bigy; seyd morteza shahroudi; jafar morvarid
Abstract
Abstract: Mulla Sadra's existential look into the Temperament, His own theory of the physical creation of soul, Special attitude with his body and soul, And Golden Transcendent Theosophy category Namely Trans-Substantial Motion, All together, The narrator of practical wisdom, Let varying steps in the ...
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Abstract: Mulla Sadra's existential look into the Temperament, His own theory of the physical creation of soul, Special attitude with his body and soul, And Golden Transcendent Theosophy category Namely Trans-Substantial Motion, All together, The narrator of practical wisdom, Let varying steps in the field of ethics in The body and corporeality, In order to warrant the presence of moral statements about nutrition, reproduction and human thinking, issue. So the author of this article has attempted to explain theory about the relationship between temperament and ethics, The corresponding, If the identity of the embryo into primary human and physical Sperm of temperance and moderation in favorable conditions, be concluded, Then the effects, results and appliances and it's clearly evident in the emotions and ethics qualities seen, And man will see, The top to bottom of her affairs, justice, decency, Nzaht, holiness, wisdom and spirituality to form.
maryam saneapour
Abstract
The dichotomy of mind/body, and form/matter are two of most problematic questions in western philosophy, which could be retraced to ancient Greece and have been lasted until age of enlightenment. Post-modernists hold that this dualism and dichotomy are reflected in the most aspects of civilization explicitly, ...
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The dichotomy of mind/body, and form/matter are two of most problematic questions in western philosophy, which could be retraced to ancient Greece and have been lasted until age of enlightenment. Post-modernists hold that this dualism and dichotomy are reflected in the most aspects of civilization explicitly, and that, the I/Other dualism is a sequence of it. Thus, the philosophical contrasting between mind/body, and form/matter should be a subject of our thinking. The resolution of the mind/body dualism is sought based on the Sadrian unity of being, in this paper. The employed method is dialectics and communicational and it is tried to find and advanced a resolution of the mind/body dualism in a intercultural philosophy space, with an eye on Sadrian philosophy. Mulla Sadra’s resolution to this problem is explained from two points of view; from an ontological viewpoint, resolve mind/body problem is possible by imagination world intermediating. From a epistemological viewpoint, resolve mind/body problem is possible by imagination faculty intermediating, as well. Mulla Sadra also look into soul intermediating for pushing mind and body into a kind of unity.
seyd mehdi mirhadi
Abstract
The aim of the present article is to investigate the relationship between imagination and emotions and to explain the role and way of the involvement of imagination in the emotional domain. The essence of the imagination, the nature of the affections and the relation between the imagination and emotions, ...
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The aim of the present article is to investigate the relationship between imagination and emotions and to explain the role and way of the involvement of imagination in the emotional domain. The essence of the imagination, the nature of the affections and the relation between the imagination and emotions, are the three main questions in the current research. Analysis and inference method was used to explain the subject. Preserving the faces after the sensory perception of phenomena, seizure in the repository faces, and the transformation of perceptual faces, are the main functions of imagination in the field of cognitive activity and self-stimulation. Instincts, natures and emotions are considered as the infrastructures of human tendencies. Emotions, while being acquired, are human tools for survival and excellence. According Mulla Sadra, emotions create motivation to move in human, and focus on self-esteem from scattered efforts and willing, in a single direction. According to him, emotions can be considered a kind of heart action by being activated in our existence, and since the activities of the soul are united with the oneself and are the part of it, then they can be the constructor of the ultimate entity of human and his/her overwordly face. The imagination is the origin of the emergence of emotions, the cause of the survival and decline of the emotions, and is the reason for meaning and revival of the emotions.
hossein hosseiniamin; fatemeh moinoldini
Abstract
Wise Sabzevari, who is one of the advocates of the issue of unity of subject and object, in addition to describing the arguments of Sadr al-Muta'lehīn, has put forward some arguments in support of this issue. In this research, the three arguments of matter and form; sensible immaterial; and transformation ...
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Wise Sabzevari, who is one of the advocates of the issue of unity of subject and object, in addition to describing the arguments of Sadr al-Muta'lehīn, has put forward some arguments in support of this issue. In this research, the three arguments of matter and form; sensible immaterial; and transformation of derivative to origin , which are based on his original arguments, have been criticized and evaluated formally and materially. The argument of matter and form is confiscated to principii petito, in which the claim principle is taken in the argument. The sensible immaterial argument, is misleading and fundamentally void, because in the third premise, there is a great confusion between the first carriage and the rushing carriage. In the third argument, the wise and sensible conversion to intellect does not mean that they will be united. Therefore, none of the three arguments are sufficient to prove unify of subject and object and reasonable, and does not have the ability to prove the claim. The formulation of arguments and criticisms is all new and the result of the writers' reflections
Jalal Dorakhsheh; Mohammad Masroor
Abstract
Anthony Giddens tries to recreate sociology on the axis of time. This revival begins with a critique of the historical evolution of classical sociology such as Marx and Durkheim as a time-space separation and by following it in other areas of the emergence of temporality, such as time-space separation, ...
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Anthony Giddens tries to recreate sociology on the axis of time. This revival begins with a critique of the historical evolution of classical sociology such as Marx and Durkheim as a time-space separation and by following it in other areas of the emergence of temporality, such as time-space separation, futurism, the construction of society, and finally, time technologies such as clock and calendar provide new meanings and functions of time. The purpose of this article is to compare these meanings with Sadrolmote'allehin’s philosophy of time. Using a comparative method, Mulla Sadra's philosophy of time and Giddens's ideas about time were first studied and then the similarities and differences of two thoughts were explained. Time is considered to be a fluid existence in Mulla Sadra's philosophy, and since the emanation of the essence is continuous, temporality is considered as part of the reality of creatures, and because the time primacy and recency is due to the intrinsic primacy and recency of the creatures, so the historical position is not an external issue, As Giddens imagines, but is institutionalized in the essence of man and other creatures. The emergence of the time primacy and recency from the existential primacy and recency excludes the suspension of the present time to the past or the future, and the present moment, takes an absolute deployment. The major similarity of two thoughts is this: for both of them, the survival and time in this world are the same. The major similarity between these two thoughts is that the survival and time in this world are the same for both. These two ideas share a major similarity: the survival and time in this world are the same for both.
Seyyed Ali Alamolhoda; Mahdi Mohammadzadeh
Abstract
In Avicenra's Thought and in the three steps, from Farabi to Mirdamad, intelligibles have been divied to primary and secondary. And secondary intelligibles have been divided to logical and philosophical. but basis on some principles of Mulla Sadra's philosophy we must present another idea for division ...
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In Avicenra's Thought and in the three steps, from Farabi to Mirdamad, intelligibles have been divied to primary and secondary. And secondary intelligibles have been divided to logical and philosophical. but basis on some principles of Mulla Sadra's philosophy we must present another idea for division of intelligibles. According to Mulla Sadra's existentialism, the primary intelligibles can't have any instance in the reality. Because the essence is unreal. Basis on the equivocalis of the existence, the beings could just be placed in the extended relation to each other. And the essences coud just be absteracted by the mind from their Levels of their existences. So according to these principles the essences as the most important of primary intelligibles can't exist in Mulla Sadras philosophy. And so the secondary intelligibles couldn’t be recognized against them. Furthermore, in this essay will be shown that the criterion of universality isnt immateriality but it is generality(inter subjectivity). And we introduce a new group of intelligibles as kantian categories. As they are aperiori concepts that the mind can see the reality through them. So it will be emergent to display a new division for universals
mohammad ali vatandoost
Abstract
In the verses and Islamic traditions, the two terms "font" and "plaque" have been used together and are considered to be of the magnitude of the current knowledge of God. The relationship between "Tablet and pen" and the levels of the current science of God has led to the emergence of two terms in Islamic ...
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In the verses and Islamic traditions, the two terms "font" and "plaque" have been used together and are considered to be of the magnitude of the current knowledge of God. The relationship between "Tablet and pen" and the levels of the current science of God has led to the emergence of two terms in Islamic philosophy and is one of the issues of the first philosophy. In the meantime, philosophers such as Mulla Sadra, in brief, and Allameh Tabatabai, have, in a detailed way, tried to use the religious teachings of these two terms to give a philosophical explanation. In the present research, it has been attempted to review and analyze the ontological conceptual analysis of Mulla Sadra and Allameh Tabatabai about "pen" with a narrative and philosophical approach. Also, some of the traditions that have been mentioned about the pen and the two thinkers have not been interpreted, and new points have been extracted. At the end, it is concluded that the "pen" and "items" are the truths of the wisdom that are in the longitudinal dynasties, and are considered to be the intermediary of grace than the facts below the subject itself.
Khadijeh Hashemi Attar; saeed anvari
Abstract
Mulla-Sadra writes in al-shavahed al-robubieh, after negating the gradation in quiddity that he contrasted with this idea in al-Asfar. In spite of the fact that he has refused to accept the gradation in quiddity in some of his works, he has given theories such as the Platonic idea and the eternal essences ...
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Mulla-Sadra writes in al-shavahed al-robubieh, after negating the gradation in quiddity that he contrasted with this idea in al-Asfar. In spite of the fact that he has refused to accept the gradation in quiddity in some of his works, he has given theories such as the Platonic idea and the eternal essences that some of the necessary acceptance of them has been considered in gradation in quiddity. This article explains and justifies this incoherency by identifying Mulla Sadra's different views on the gradation in quiddity. of the discussion and discussing the issues that they are required to accept in gradation in quiddity. To this end, various justifications have been raised and criticized about this apparent disagreement with Mulla Sadra. These views include: gradation in quiddity in defense of the iluminationists, changing his view in gradation in quiddity, the gradation in quiddity means gradation in essence, gradation in graduated concepts, gradation in quiddity persons, gradation in quiddity in subordinate with existence.
Morteza Hosseinzadeh; Sahar Kavandi; Mohsen Jahed
Abstract
The truth of knowledge was considered by western philosophers and epistemologists long time ago unclear sentence. They were mostly foundationalists or coherentists in the justification element. Muslim philosophers specifically paid attention to the problem of knowledge, and defined it as constant certainty ...
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The truth of knowledge was considered by western philosophers and epistemologists long time ago unclear sentence. They were mostly foundationalists or coherentists in the justification element. Muslim philosophers specifically paid attention to the problem of knowledge, and defined it as constant certainty corresponding reality. In consideration of ternary definition of knowledge, it can be deduced that Muslim philosophers accepted the corresponding theory in truth element, and accepted foundationalism in justification element. Though, epistemological model of Sadra is different from those of Muslim philosophers in consideration of different evaluations of statements, and emphasis on different role and place of proof and mystic intuition in reaching knowledge, and on the other hand, by accepting that knowledge is existential, and by reducing conceptual knowledge to immediate knowledge. Understanding of Mulla Sadra's theory requires examining his method of the justification element. Various aspects are indicated to distinguish between the Transcendent Philosophy and other philosophical schools. In this view, mystic intuition can play a justifying role. From viewpoint of Mulla Sadra, what should be followed are proof and mystic intuition. In the Sadra’s system, revelation is the criterion for evaluation of mystic intuition. So, reaching knowledge demands the existence of proof or mystic intuition, and the truth of the latter should be evaluated by the revelation. Epistemic system of Sadra is formed by three elements of proof, mystic intuition, and revelation being interrelated to each other. Explaining the epistemological role of proof, mystic intuition, and revelation addresses the context of justification, uncovering the theory of the Transcendent Philosophy about the knowledge. Methods This study describes the problems, analyzes them, and in some cases, criticizes them using a literature review. Results and discussion After determination of the ternary epistemic elements, viz. proof, mystic intuition, and revelation, it can be concluded that real knowledge is gained through proof or mystic intuition. In an initial look, it seems that proof and mystic intuition are different, but since he believes that real knowledge is the immediate knowledge, it can be believed that proof and mystic intuition are single and the same, and that the reality of both is the existential encountering with non-material reality. Each of proof and mystic intuition is preparing a cause for encountering non-material existence and gaining knowledge. After considering the theories that set forth the justifying element in the Sadra’s system, and examining their faults according to this system, another theory is reached herein about justifying element, which is not just foundationalism or coherentism. Conclusion In our opinion, in consideration of epistemological foundations of the Transcendent Philosophy, one cannot believe that Mulla Sadra's theory of justification is the same as those of other Muslim epistemologists. Mulla Sadra's theory of justification is a compound one that authors named it as “existential foundherentism”. From the viewpoint of Mulla Sadra, proof and mystic intuition (purification of the soul) are the preparing causes for the existential encountering of non-material existence, and consequently, for justifying the beliefs. Coherentism of Mulla Sadra and his reliance on proof is the realm of conceptual knowledge. This means that in the realm of conceptual knowledge, he believes in two kinds of statements, i.e. foundational and non-foundational, and justifies the latter by the former. Mulla Sadra's cohrtentism implies his belief of conceptual knowledge to be compatible with immediate knowledge, the latter being compatible to the former. In consideration of Mulla Sadra's foundation, the reality of proof and mystic intuition is unique and the same, and that reality is immediate encountering the object of knowledge. This encountering, as a result, is a product of proof or purification of the soul, that is, both promote the existence of the knower and put him/her in the presence of object of the knowledge, and just here, object of the knowledge attends for the knower and the identity of knower and known occurs. The compound theory named “existential foundherentism”, pays attention both to the role of proof and the mystic intuition. Although in some of his works, Mulla Sadra only emphasizes the proof for justifying the statements, his final viewpoint is to follow proof or mystic intuition, and that proof proves, hence it cannot be incompatible with the mystic intuition, and real proof is not against to the mystic intuition.
Einullah Khademi; Abdullah Salavati; Leila Purakbar; Marveh Dolatabadi
Abstract
This essay seeks to explain Mulla Sadra's philosophical-mystical encounter with the problem of death. The main question of this study is the explanation of the truth of death and its aspects from Mulla Sadra’s point of view. In this article, we do not merely focus on the philosophical vision of ...
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This essay seeks to explain Mulla Sadra's philosophical-mystical encounter with the problem of death. The main question of this study is the explanation of the truth of death and its aspects from Mulla Sadra’s point of view. In this article, we do not merely focus on the philosophical vision of Mulla Sadra on death; rather, we explain the mystical views of Mulla Sadra, independently from his philosophical ideas, too. Thus, this research is innovative in its simultaneous explanation of the philosophical and mystical truth of death and its aspects from Mulla Sadra’s perspective. In his ontology, Mulla Sadra provides an account of the evolutionary course of the soul's development relying on such principles as principality of existence, the free trans-substantial motion, corporeal creation and spiritual survival of soul and specific multiplicity. He believes that human soul is of hierarchical degrees ranging from the mere deficiency to the ultimate perfection and precisely, the triple worlds of soul are associated with the triple ontological worlds and death happens in these worlds. Moreover, Mulla Sadra uses the principles of mystics, particularly the Knowledge of Names (ʿIlm al-ʾAsmāʾ), in order to analyze various aspects of the problem of death. The current study has been conducted based on the method of content analysis. Using this method, Mulla Sadra's encounter with death is investigated through exploration of the ontological factors as well as different aspects of death and its relation with evolution, eternity and life, and the analysis of foundations of death within the framework of Individual unity of existence and its gradational unity. Achievements of the current research are as follows:1) According to Mulla Sadra, death is a natural phenomenon which has its origin in the soul's turning her face away from the sensible world and paying attention to God and His Heavens. He describes death as the existential development of soul and believes that the soul, in the end of its evolutionary journey, enters the world of intellects and becomes united with Active Intellect and in higher stages with the First Intellect. Mulla Sadra opines that human’s otherworldly existence is the perfected form of his worldly existence and when the existential substance of the soul becomes intensified and strong and the soul reaches the last stage of its worldly existence, it departs its worldly existence and heads to the otherworld. In fact, the soul after death joins a superior existence, i.e. otherworldly existence, and gets existentially promoted.Moreover, in the system of existence unity, man is the manifestation of God's existential perfections that emerges under the decree of the Name "The First and The Manifest" (Al-Awwal and Al-Ẓāhir) and under the decree of the Name "The Last" (Al-Ākhir), he returns to go with all his perfections. But due to the existence of worldly veils before the death, man is deprived of a complete union with the Intellects and reaching God as well as being a perfect manifestation of Divine Perfections; thus, death provides the necessary context for understanding this union and achieving the existential perfections. 2) Based on his philosophical principles like principality of existence, gradational unity, the trans-substantial motion, and particularly the corporeal creation and spiritual survival of soul, Mulla Sadra proves that the soul enjoys a natural existence in the beginning of its occurrence; however, in the following, based on its free trans-substantial motion, it undergoes through essential evolution and joins the world of immaterial entities; finally, it changes into an incorporeal entity. In this situation, due to the essential simplicity of the soul, it is not annihilated and also the soul becomes eternal following its union with the divine intellects. According to Sadra, soul intrinsically seeks after eternity and hates annihilation; because the eternity is among the attributes of the superior entities (intellect); then, the soul is essentially interested in eternity and glorifies the highest modes.According to the individual unity of existence, soul is eternal as the manifestation of the Divine Eternity. Based on the knowledge of Names of mystics, the man is the manifestation of the decrees governing the world as long as he is in this world; after his going to the otherworld, the decrees of the Names of this world become dormant and the decrees of the Names of the otherworld prevail and he turns in to the manifestation of the Names governing the otherworld. Thus, the physical body and whatever else that exists in this material world is not annihilated with the death, rather it returns to dormancy state and its manifestation is gradually reduced. Therefore, death means transferring the manifestation of the Divine Names proportionate to the existential worlds for man.3) According to the philosophical thought of Mulla Sadra, life is co-extensive (Musāwiq) with existence [life and existence represent the same extension] and every being enjoys as much life as its existential breadth allows. Thus, human life is a function of his/her existential level (ontological plane) and the latter is in turn a function of one's perceptual level (rational level); with an intensive gradational evolution, man reaches the highest levels of existence, i.e. ideal existence; then, it reaches the intellectual existence, and as a result, he enjoys a more perfect and superior perception and life. Thus, human’s true life lies in his intellectual life and since the life in the otherworld is an intelligible and incorporeal life, death makes the transition to this level of life, possible.This goal can be achieved in this world; but its complete realization becomes possible via death and one's transmission to the world of incorporeity; because these existential worlds are purified of all types of diversity and material taints; as a result, the beings in it have an independent life and will enjoy the higher levels of life and its effects.Additionally, according to Mulla Sadra, in the system of individual unity of existence, existents are among the existential attributes of God. Since the life of God is true, original and eternal, the man, as the perfect manifestation of the Divine Presence, his life is corresponded with God’s life and by the relation with the Truth, it makes sense; also, according to the manifestation of the Names, he enjoys a higher level of life; however, since the highest level of life is the otherworldly life which is essential and true, man will understand the true meaning of life only with death and transmission to the otherworld.
Fahimeh Shariati
Abstract
Despite the physicalistic approach to the mind in the present century, the existence of the mental states different from body states has caused various scales to be put forth regarding mental issues, the most important of which are awareness, being first person, and intentionality. Awareness possesses ...
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Despite the physicalistic approach to the mind in the present century, the existence of the mental states different from body states has caused various scales to be put forth regarding mental issues, the most important of which are awareness, being first person, and intentionality. Awareness possesses an extensive domain incorporating senses, perceptions, recalling, visual representation, tendencies, imagination, beliefs, and thoughts. Being a first person means immediate reception such as all the intuitive perceptions deployed as opposed to acquisitive ones. In fact, it can be stated that the indicators mean presence by one’s own self. The intentionality means reference to a thing or being about a thing. In a mental issue, a man gains a certain experience, such as hope or doubt, in regard of a certain issue in the external world. Such mental affairs as doubt, hope, belief, and so forth are issues that have an attachment to a thing in the world outside and make reference thereto; doubt in…, hope in…, and belief in… are all characteristics of this intentionality. This is the common attribute of all voluntary actions and sensory perceptions as well. Intentionality is indeed a personal representation of the external world. Each of these indicators has difficulties in representation of mental issues. As opined by some, awareness is so diverse that it has to be separately defined for each of its type. For example, qualitative awareness cannot be grouped in a class with phenomenal awareness. In some others’ opinions, awareness is a process, not a phenomenon. It also exists in animals because of the similarity of their cerebral structure to human beings, even though it is more advanced in the latter. Another case of breach in introducing the indicator as an index of mental issue should be sought in human being’s unconscious states. The existing shortfall in regard of being first person is that there are many non-intermediated and immediate affairs that are not mental. Can pain be truly considered mental as ruled based on this indicator while it can be imagined by all the creatures? Meanwhile, the intentionality is a less flawed indicator. Investigations on the Transcendent Philosophy (Ḥikmat-i Mutaʿālīa;) are well reflective of the importance of ego attention or notice. Mulla Sadra made use of intention or attention of ego (soul) in his works about God, human beings and other creatures such as animals, plants and inanimate ones. It means that the concept was applied in Mulla Sadra’s works for three types of existents, namely necessary being, speaker (thinker) existent, and all other non-speaker existents. The use cases of ego attention and intention will be examined regarding the human actions in the Transcendent Philosophy so as to conclude that how and under what conditions the ego (soul) intention can be introduced as a criterion for distinguishing non-bodily from bodily affairs? Perception: Sadr al-Mutiʾallihīn knows perception nothing more than ego (soul, nafs) attention. Acquisition of Sciences: In some expressions, Mulla Sadra states that all the perceptions related to the human mind in a rank by rank manner in sum, and realizes them all as the result of ego’s attention to intellect and the heart of the truths. Creativity: A type of extrinsic ego attention is intended in the Transcendent Philosophy in which intention is directed from a superior being, the Righteous One, to the inferior being, the creatures. The attention, by itself, causes the inscription of the truths in the ego and generates creativities as well. Liberty (Ikhtīyār) and Intentionality: In the Transcendent Philosophy, the type of human deeds and behaviors or human liberty is a function of non-essential ego attention to the two general extreme ends. Actions are purposive as long as they are functions of this attention or intention. Judgment: Judging the right or wrong is nothing more than paying attention to the connection of a sentence’s components. Worships and Prayers: Mulla Sadra constantly speaks of an inherent intention inside all the creatures in their doing of their deeds, and this makes the nature of things move in a certain direction. But, as for the human beings, consideration of attention or not disregarding the attention is unique and specific. Guess, Thought: intellectual issues are obtained by a middle term. It means that there is a need for a middle term in order to be able to figure out knowns from unknowns, thereby, to arrive at intelligibles. Pleasures and Pains: Joy is the perception of consistency and compliance of an issue with the human nature. Love and Zeal: An intentionality of ego is named zeal and love. In a sort of classification, Mulla Sadra divides attention and intention into two sets, namely innate (inherent) and unnatural (extrinsic). In another general categorization, he divides the intention into intention to superior things and intention to inferior things. In this way, although attention or intention of a thing is shared by human beings and other creatures, its application is vividly divided into two parts, called “essential attention” and “non-essential attention”, and he excludes various kinds of attention in animals. Amongst the human actions as well, such indicators as “nonphysical” or “ego-oriented” are “ego’s non-essential attentions” based on the Transcendent Philosophy. The “essential ego attention” is the necessary and enough condition in distinguishing the ego-oriented affairs. The indicator “essential intention” is succinctly characterized by awareness because not all sorts of insights are required for a mental issue. This latter indicator encompasses all the other distinctions as well, is conclusive and exclusive of all the mental issues, and is in perfect coordination with the other basics of ego study by Mulla Sadra.
Mahmoud Hedayatafza
Abstract
Being familiar with various philosophical sources and schools, Mulla Sadra sometimes provides diverse answers to some of the philosophical or theological problems, including in regard of the elaboration of God’s inherent characteristics for which three different solutions can be inferred from Mulla ...
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Being familiar with various philosophical sources and schools, Mulla Sadra sometimes provides diverse answers to some of the philosophical or theological problems, including in regard of the elaboration of God’s inherent characteristics for which three different solutions can be inferred from Mulla Sadra’s works. He constantly keeps making a great deal of emphasis on the exemplary objectification of essence with divine characteristics, but three different approaches are observed, namely discourse, philosophical and Gnostic, in his works when it comes to the clarification of a meaning for “objectification”. The primary objective of the present study is to explicate Mulla Sadra’s special approach, and to elucidate the aspects rendering it different from the other two perspectives. Naturally, in order to understand a philosophical response thereto, it is necessary to compare it with the other two approaches, especially with the more general and discourse-based approach, so that the differences could be figured out. These three approaches signify three levels of cognizance: A) Sadra’s general and discourse-based approach is expressive of the existential unification of the reasonable perfections with the unit essence of God, which can be seen flowing in the works of the majority of the verdict interpreters. Besides accepting the classification of the characteristics to inherent and non-inherent in his works, Mulla Sadra largely underlines the abstraction of numerous concepts of extended truth, as mental innovation of Muḥaqiq Ṭūsī and Ḥillī. B) The philosophical or specific approach of this Shirazi philosopher is based on the comparison of the divine essence and characteristics of the possible existence and nature. Based on the Sadraean theory of existence originality, each externally present object is firstly and essentially an example of “existence” (with noun and not infinitive meaning), and secondly and transversally an example of a certain nature. Accordingly, the divine essence is firstly and essentially an example of the “existence”, and secondly and transversally an example of the lofty characteristics and beautiful traits; so, what is immediately abstracted from the divine essence is the nominal concept of “existence”. Moreover, the same way that the existence, as held in Sadraean system, features a conditional mode in every substantive conveyance to the weights thereof, the reasonable perfections of the same type as the “existence”, considered as the inherent characteristics thereof, are all examples of built-in non-acquisitive states with existence dependency. These have been abstracted from the unit essence of God in regard of a single aspect. Thus, besides the objectification of the essence by characteristics, there is a single topic involved in the verity of the characteristics, and such a positive trait as “equality of the inherent characteristics concepts” is the attribute of the divine rank. C) Sadra’s Gnostic and specialized approach leads to the denial of the characteristics of the divine essence. Obviously, resembling the essence and characteristics to existence and nature is effective in the elaboration of such a standpoint, but the divine perfections are to be regarded as rank-based conditional states.
