Biannual Journal
seyedeh akram ashabi
Abstract
Throughout the history of human thought, the question of innate inclinations (fiṭrat) has given rise to many debates. Regarding its significance, it needs to be said that the question is the cornerstone and substance of moral psychology, such that if we eliminate it from discussions about moral psychology, ...
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Throughout the history of human thought, the question of innate inclinations (fiṭrat) has given rise to many debates. Regarding its significance, it needs to be said that the question is the cornerstone and substance of moral psychology, such that if we eliminate it from discussions about moral psychology, the whole building of the knowledge will collapse. Hence knowledge about innate inclinations is the mother of knowledge about human questions. There are two theories on whether or not human beings have innate inclinations. According to the first, there is no such thing as an innate inclination in human beings, human nature at birth being like an empty and shapeless container taking the shape of whatever society pours into it. According to the second theory, human nature is not like an empty container, but, rather, there are needs and inclinations in human beings on the basis of which they live and these needs and inclinations are realized if put in favorable conditions. In this article, we study viewpoints on innate inclinations of famous mystic Rumi and contemporary thinker Morteza Motahhari, both belonging to the area of philosophical and mystic thought in Islam. The article’s main point is that the idea of the innate in the thoughts of both of the great men was inspired by the religion of Islam, and that they believed in a divine origin for the innate, as well as in the fact that human existence is a battle field for the innate against carnal and sensual forces. Hence human beings always struggle with their material dependencies, longing for return to their divine origins, and they will calm down only when set free from the snare of their whims and material dependencies and when they return to their divine innate inclinations. In spite of the commonalities in their premises (Islamic teachings), each of these two thinkers has adopted different methods. Rumi has benefited from visionary and intuitive methods as well as from exegesis, and Motahhari has benefited from philosophical and argumentative methods. Interestingly, however, they have drawn same conclusions. Motahhari’s theory is more meticulous than Rumi’s and has analytic categorizations, which is typical of philosophical method. Both of them had detailed meditations on innate inclinations, and the comparison between them is worthwhile because it shows what use these thoughts have and that their main points and origins are Islamic teachings. This article has discussed, first, the significance of moral psychology, especially in the modern world, and then the significance and status of innate inclinations in human existence. The term fiṭrat was differentiated from instinct and other natural affairs and its distinctive features were presented, citing the verse 30 of Chapter al-Rum in the Qur’an. The conclusion from the examination and analysis of Rumi’s Masnavi is that by invoking Koranic verses he describes human beings as having two divine and corporeal aspects. Citing the verse of Covenant, he says that human beings have their origins in their divine innate inclinations, and depicts an eternal relation with God which is metaphorically described in the poems of his Masnavi as a reed bed, associating the separation from the world of fiṭrat with lack, despair, and confusion in this earthly world. In his In It There is What Is In It (Fi hi Ma Fi h), Rumi regards individuals as enjoying varying degrees of knowledge about God, and prophets and those who are close to God as people who can draw aside the material veil and through their hearts become connected to God and aware of his being. In every tale of Masnavi human beings’ clean, and ugly and hideous faces are depicted and all human beings struggle between the opposites, and as long as they have not returned to their clean and original innate inclinations they do not feel excellence and triumph. Here, there is a serious distinction between Rumi and other mystics: the latter basically consider the human soul as deplorable and human beings as debased, spoiled, and aggressive. They did not see in humans anything but brutality and atrocity, which is why they tried to suppress inclinations and carnalities, whereas Rumi believed in the high status of human beings and the spiritual aspect of their existence and their connection with the divine world, and sought to show how this part of human beings can overcome their material aspects. In Motahhari, fiṭrat is used with two specific and general meanings. He thinks that all innate affairs in the general meaning have their origins in divine innate inclinations. Ultimately, he introduces only one authentic fiṭrat which is absolute perfection. Since human beings are always seeking perfection and any perfection comes with a flaw, the only perfection towards which human innate inclinations can be directed is the perfection above which there is not any perfection. Because in this small material world that perfection cannot be achieved, human beings keep feeling disenchantment and restlessness. Motahhari thinks of human perfection-seeking innate inclination as having varying degrees, and that there are factors affecting its realization, the most important of which are prophets. Prophets can save not only human beings who are distanced from their fiṭrat but also those who are suffering from the metamorphosis of their fiṭrat, which was what motivated Moses to go to Pharaoh: innate inclinations are not destroyed, therefore, there is room for the hope that human beings will return to their fiṭrat. Motahhari considers human beings as involved with two existential aspects, heavenly and earthly, and believes that they will triumph only when they rein in their soul and make it subject to their true self. Citing Koranic verses, both Rumi and Motahhari as Islamic thinkers regard human existence as two-sided: innate affairs have their origins in the spiritual aspect and instinctive tendencies in the corporeal aspect. Invoking the verse of Covenant they both see the knowledge about God as innate and dating back from before creation of human beings. Furthermore, human beings’ distance from their origin and their imprisonment in the small material world has caused human distress, sadness and grief. Another point is the conflict between two human existential forces namely innate and sensual forces, deriving from two-sidedness of human existence. And human beings will triumph if they make their desires subject to the transcendent aspect of their existence. To convey his meaning, Motahhari sometimes uses couplets composed by Rumi. Referring to the significant role of prophets in precluding deviation from fiṭrat and placing human beings in the course of their human nature are among other commonalities between these two great men.
Biannual Journal
Akbar Amiri; Mahdi Azimi
Abstract
The quiddity of paranormal phenomena has been interesting and questionable throughout human history and mankind has alwayes tried to underestand it in format of various names and titles. when it is talked about these phenomena , some poeple try to prove them and others try to deny them; ...
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The quiddity of paranormal phenomena has been interesting and questionable throughout human history and mankind has alwayes tried to underestand it in format of various names and titles. when it is talked about these phenomena , some poeple try to prove them and others try to deny them; Without having a common and precise definition of these phenomena in advance. in other words; Before giving a reason for existence or non-existence of "X" , we must have a precise definition of it. that has all the conditions of a correct and logical definition, Otherwise any discussion about " X" will be useless and other than adding ambiguity, it does not help to clarify the matter. for this reason, in this article we have tried to examine the most popular definitions of paranormal phenomenom that has been presented so far and after analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of each definition over each other to provide the basis for reaching a fairly accurate definition of these phenomena. our position in this article is that it is possible to reach a accurate definition of paranormal phenomenon. we try to pave the way for a better definition , which in our opinion is the ninth definition; by showing the defects and strengths of each definition. we must note that our claim in this article is not to provide a very precise definition but it is to show this matter that contrary to popular belief; provided definitions of paranormal phenomenon are not perfect. however, it is possible to take steps and try to achieve the almost accurate definition that does not have the drawbacks of previous definitions. although there is a long way to go to reach an absolutely accurate definition and walking this way requires many steps; This article can be one of the first steps. Methods and Matterial: our research method in this article is a rational method that includes deductive method. however, we also used experimental data to show the accuracy of our results. Results and Discussion: Before defining the paranormal phenomenon, a distinction must be made between three categories: normal, unnormal and paranormal phenomena. Phenomena that we call paranormal are divided into two categories: the first category is phenomena that are "aparrantly" paranormal that with the advancement of science, we may no longer consider them paranormal, The second category is phenomena that are truly paranormal. Although ordinary people do not have a clear criterion for distinguishing between normal and unnormal phenomena ;None of them doubts the existence of unnormal phenomena, but still they doubt the existence of paranormal phenomen and are skeptical about putting them in the category of unnormal phenomena. however, there are phenomena that are candidates for the paranormal category our definition should be such that it includes aparrantly paranormal phenomena. Since Ducasse's definition of paranormal phenomena is based on natural causation, his definition is not accurate, beacause causality in paranormal phenomena may be another type of causality. Definitions based on scientific inexplicability are also not appropriate because first, many natural phenomena, such as gravity, do not yet have a scientific explanation and yet no one calls them paranormal. Secondly, if we consider it absolutely scientifically inexplicable, we have denied the possibility of their occurrence. Broad's definition, which is based on basic limiting principles, is not correct either. because the exact number of these principles is not known and there is doubt in their basicity. Scriven's definition, while introducing the component of consciousness, is still ambiguous. The ninth definition, which is the one we have provided, has at least one major advantage over the other definitions; and that by knowing these phenomena beyond time and space considers phenomena such as precognition and clairvoyance to be rationally explainable without considering them empirically explicable. Conclusion: The first step in explaining paranormal phenomena is to try to reach an accurate definition of them. In parapsychology, different conceptual definitions of these phenomena have been presented. which are mainly based on scientific inexplicability The definition based on scientific inexplicability, if it is limited to a specific time, then includes normal and unnormal phenomena as well and it will no longer be an exact definition, even if it is not limited to a specific time and we consider the supernatural phenomenon to be absolutely inexplicable, then we have denied the possibility of its occurrence. In Islamic philosophy and mysticism, there are valuable discussions about the paranormal phenomenon but they have two problems, the first of which is their dependence on religious and theological issues and the lack of an independent and phenomenological research on them. another problem is that most of their definitions of a paranormal phenomenon are based on mentioning referents of concept of this phenomenon and fail to provide a precise conceptual definition. Since in the first eight definitions, the criterion of scientific inexplicability constitutes at least one of the key elements of the definition of the paranormal phenomenon. until we have a precise and clear definition of science and its scope, none of them can be considered a proper definition of the paranormal phenomenon. however, it seems that the ninth definition, that is, the definition we have given, does not have this defect because it is not based on scientific inexplicability and it has advantages that even Scriven's definition lacks. simplicity, comprehensiveness and compatibility with customary understanding are important advantages of this definition over previous definitions. therefore, until we reach a completely accurate definition of these phenomena, the ninth definition is better and more accurate than other definitions.
Biannual Journal
mohammad javad pashaei
Abstract
The natural world, in which there is no escape from evil phenomena, has always occupied the human mind in search of a way to overcome evil. Some of these fears should be considered in terms of how to use religion and solicit to friends of God in the face of evil and disease. From a mystical point of ...
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The natural world, in which there is no escape from evil phenomena, has always occupied the human mind in search of a way to overcome evil. Some of these fears should be considered in terms of how to use religion and solicit to friends of God in the face of evil and disease. From a mystical point of view, how to overcome the mental and physical injuries caused by evil and evil by solicit to the perfect man, is a fundamental question that this article seeks to answer. In a descriptive-analytical approach, the author has reached the conclusion that according to Ibn Arabi, the interventions of a perfect man in the natural world are limited and, unless it is authorized by God, he does not and should not take possession of nature. He was expecting an extraordinary habit. And even in the case of possession, he uses his minimal possessions in the way of expressing religion. Yes, one of the most important functions of God-fearing spirituality and recourse should be considered to be the peace that comes from faith, with which one can overcome the harms caused by evils and evils.
Biannual Journal
fatemeh rajaei; مومنی momeni
Abstract
Logicians, such as Avicenna (or Ibn Sīnā), give moral propositions (like “injustice is bad” and “justice is good”) as examples of “popular” (mashhūrāt) propositions and praised opinions in the section of dialectics. However, Islamic theologians (those adhering ...
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Logicians, such as Avicenna (or Ibn Sīnā), give moral propositions (like “injustice is bad” and “justice is good”) as examples of “popular” (mashhūrāt) propositions and praised opinions in the section of dialectics. However, Islamic theologians (those adhering to justice or ‘adliyya) cite these propositions in their discussion of rational goodness and badness. This can be discussed in different respects: Are goodness and badness propositions primitively self-evident propositions or just popular propositions? Are they rational or legislated propositions? Do they admit of truth and falsity? Are they realistic or irrealistic? If they are popular propositions, then can their goodness or badness still be essential? In this paper, we are concerned with this latter question. To begin with, according to passages from Avicenna, these propositions are admittedly popular, but then the question arises of whether this is compatible with their goodness and badness being essential. This is because the essentiality of goodness and badness implies their reality, whereas a merely popular proposition does not have a reality beyond an agreement among rational agents. In the first case, popularity or general interests are at stake, whereas essentiality amounts to being detached from general interests or popularity within the society, in the sense that an act is immediately described as good or bad, but this is at odds with what logicians have suggested. The question of this research is to reveal a conflict between essentiality and rationality of such propositions on the one hand, and their popularity, on the other. We begin with an introduction of epistemological and ontological dimensions of the problem, and then consider the problem in terms of logic, referring to passages from Avicenna in this regard, and after an elucidation of the conflict, we finally formulate Muẓaffar’s solution to the conflict. The idea is that although the popularity of such propositions is incompatible with essentiality or rationality of good and badness as widely understood by theologians, a more refined understanding of essentiality and rationality will help resolve the conflict.
Biannual Journal
Amirhossein Zadyousefi
Abstract
Introduction Is the relation of necessary concomitance or mutual implication (talāzum) between two things a sui generis relation or is it reducible to some other relation(s)? If it is so reducible, then what is (are) the metaphysical relation(s) to which the relation of necessary concomitance between ...
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Introduction Is the relation of necessary concomitance or mutual implication (talāzum) between two things a sui generis relation or is it reducible to some other relation(s)? If it is so reducible, then what is (are) the metaphysical relation(s) to which the relation of necessary concomitance between two things is reduced? This question has raised a controversy among Muslim philosophers. For them, the answer to the first question is in the affirmative, but they are divided over the second question, offering two classes of theories: causal theories and causal-correlational theories. In the literature on Islamic philosophy, this problem was dealt with by Mūsawī A‘ẓam (2016) and Miṣbāḥ Yazdī (2012: 341-5). My research is distinguished from these two works in that first, I will portray the controversy between the two rival theories; second, I present objections by opponents of the causal theory; third, I consider whether advocates of the causal theory succeed in their responses to these objections; fourth, I introduce certain counterexamples that have not been taken account of in the literature; and fifth, I make suggestions in response to those counterexamples. No independent paper has so far been published on this subject. Method of Research This research is done with the descriptive-analytic method drawing on a logical analysis. Data are first collected through library studies, and then they are analyzed by deploying the methods of logical analysis. Discussion and Conclusions According to the first theory, the relation of necessary concomitance between two things is reducible to a causal relation between them. In contrast, proponents of the causal-correlational theories believe that correlations offer counterexamples to the causal theory, reducing the relation of necessary concomitance between two things to a causal relation or to a correlation between them. Advocates of the causal theory, however, seek to argue that correlation is itself reducible to the causal relation. Moreover, they provide an argument to show that correlations are also reducible to causal relations. Conclusion The argument by advocates of the causal theory for the reduction of correlations to causal relations does not seem valid. Moreover, there are further counterexamples against advocates of the causal theory, including: (a) the necessary concomitance of existence and quiddity, and (b) the necessary concomitance of quiddities and their implications, such as the ‘human quiddity and possibility’ and the ‘quiddity of number 4 and evenness.’ These examples involve a necessary concomitance between two things, whereas they do not have a causal relation. Nevertheless, there seem to be suggestions on behalf of proponents of the causal theory to respond to these counterexamples. As to the examples of ‘existence and quiddity,’ the ‘human quiddity and possibility,’ and the ‘quiddity of number 4 and evenness,’ one might say that if there is a distinction between external causation (namely, the relation of dependence between two entities, which implies two distinct existences) and analytic causation (namely, the relation of dependence between two entities that do not exist distinctly, and indeed have the same existence) as is defended by some people, then one might say that, to begin with, the causation involved in a causal theory generalizes over both external and analytic causations, and secondly, there is an analytic, rather than external, causation holding between the above pairs of entities. Moreover, as to the counterexample of two correlates, it might be explained that they are effects of a third entity: each correlate, say x’s being above and y’s being below, is caused by a third entity, which consists of a situation in which x is above y in the external world relative to our perceptual system as we observe the situation. As long as such a cause obtains, there is a necessary concomitance between x’s being above and y’s being below.
Biannual Journal
maryam abbasabbadi arabi; Ali Haghi; Alireza Kohansal
Abstract
Philosophers and intellectuals have always been concerned with the problem of life. Many have considered it from different points of view. In ancient philosophy, life was attributed to the soul. Pythagoras was the first to treat the soul as the origin of life. He was followed by Anaxagoras who referred ...
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Philosophers and intellectuals have always been concerned with the problem of life. Many have considered it from different points of view. In ancient philosophy, life was attributed to the soul. Pythagoras was the first to treat the soul as the origin of life. He was followed by Anaxagoras who referred to the life force, which gave life to the material world, as Nous (intellect or spirit). Just like his predecessors, Plato believed that the soul was the origin of life, and in the case of real entities, life, spirit, motion, and reason are inseparable. Following Plato’s lead, Aristotle traced the cause or origin of life to the soul. These ideas left a great impact on Muslim philosophers. Avicenna—a prominent philosopher in the Islamic world—appealed to Plato’s and Aristotle’s accounts to argue that life is essential to the soul, believing that the soul is by itself alive, and physical objects come to be alive by virtue of the soul. Accordingly, the criterion of life for Avicenna is perception and action. After Avicenna, Mullā Ṣadrā provided the same definition, developing it by drawing on his own philosophical principles.Mullā Ṣadrā argues that life is the origin of “perception” and “action,” incorporating the two notions in his definition of life. In his view, a living being is a perceiving acting entity; that is, an entity with knowledge and consciousness, which does certain actions. In other words, it should be such that it knowingly and consciously does the action. Given his philosophical principles such as the primacy of existence, its simplicity, and its gradation (tashkīk), he establishes the idea that life is a graded entity pervasive throughout all stages of existence. On this account, every living being’s life is the way of its existence, which determines its vital effects. The nobler and stronger the existence is, the more perfection the perception and the firmer the action will be. Hence, every being enjoys life as much as it enjoys existence. We refer to certain existing entities as non-living because we cannot perceive the effects of life in them. For volitional sensation and motion are indications of life, and beings that tangibly have such characteristics are living, and this is not to deny life in other beings. For instance, Quranic verses affirm that there is such a life in beings which cannot be perceived by human senses. Thus, according to Mullā Ṣadrā’s philosophy, all existing entities are ipso facto alive, whereas pre-Sadraean philosophies attributed life only to animals and humans on account of their perceptive and motive faculties, lacked by plants and solid objects, and thus they saw these entities as non-living. This is incompatible with Quranic verses and the principles of Mullā Ṣadrā’s philosophy. There are Quranic verses referring to the exaltation of God by all beings—something not perceived by human senses. These verses indicate that all beings enjoy consciousness and life. Mullā Ṣadrā argued for such general consciousness and life by drawing on his philosophical principles. In this way, the widespread view that only some beings are alive is implausible in terms of Mullā Ṣadrā’s transcendent philosophy, and once life is proved for a stage of existence, it will be proved for all other stages of existence by dint of the principles of the primacy, simplicity, and gradation of existence. This is compatible with many Quranic verses and hadiths in which the power to talk, to hear, and to know is attributed to apparently non-living beings, which implies a degree of life in them.On this account, life is a graded reality that exists as an existential perfection in the necessary being, humans, animals, plants, and solid objects in different degrees. Thus, the necessary being is essentially alive, giving existence and life to other entities. Such existence is the same as life, and solid objects, plants, animals, and humans enjoy degrees of life to the extent that they enjoy degrees of existence. The view is confirmed by Quranic verses, denoting that all beings exalt God, which imply that all beings are alive. Mullā Ṣadrā cites the Quranic verse, “There is not a thing but celebrates His praise, but you do not understand their glorification,” and then comments that all beings prostrate for God and praise Him in a volitional conscious manner, and perfective attributes such as life, knowledge, and power are not separable from these beings.
Biannual Journal
Mehdi Fayaz; Seyed Mohammad Ali Taghavi; Mohammad Reza Sedghi Rezvani
Abstract
1-INTRODUCTION "Irony" is one of the pivotal themes of Richard Rorty's thought. This concept has a long-lasting background in the history of philosophy. At first it was used in the Ancient Greece to describe the method of Socratic dissimulation which drew the attention of great thinkers such as Søren ...
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1-INTRODUCTION "Irony" is one of the pivotal themes of Richard Rorty's thought. This concept has a long-lasting background in the history of philosophy. At first it was used in the Ancient Greece to describe the method of Socratic dissimulation which drew the attention of great thinkers such as Søren Kierkegaard. On the other hand, the concept of rendi has also an enduring and meandering background in the history of Persian language. This concept particularly has a focal place in Hafez's poetry and it is so significant that rendi is considered as the most consistent theme in Hafez's thought. The main purpose of this research is to compare the two concepts of "irony" and rendi in the thoughts of two outstanding thinkers who lived and flourished in two different cultural backgrounds. 2- METHODOLOGY The comparative research method is used in this study. Comparison would help us to understand two phenomena if we could find similarities between them, and these findings could enhance our knowledge about the two phenomena to a certain extent. Comparison sheds light on the points that have been concealed and ignored, and helps us to understand the affinities and differences of various cultural and thought resources. In fact, comparison reveals unique as well as similar aspects of thoughts and cultures. The main question of the present research is that in what aspects the two concepts of Richard Rorty's "irony" and Hafez's rendi are similar and in what respects they differ. Although such a comparison seems at first sight impossible or at least problematic, it reveals many similarities between the two concepts, despite the cultural and linguistic differences of Hafez and Rorty. Not only does the comparison of rendi and "irony" show the literary and philosophical values of these two concepts in two different cultures, but it also provides the possibility to look into the literary and philosophical texts from alternative and new perspectives. 3- RESULTS & DISCUSSION From Rorty's viewpoint, human beings are free to build their inner self and his ideal character is "ironist". The Ironist is a playful, free, and innovative person. Like a strong poet, an "ironist" tries to show that he is not a duplicate of another person and he intends to recreate himself in a unique and distinctive manner. Indeed, the "ironist" endeavours to recreate the best of himself. From Hafez's viewpoint, on the other hand, rend is someone who simultaneously experiences the love of living life, attempts to understand it, and is amazed by its mysteries. Hafez asks that how we could live in an age that hypocrisy, deceitfulness, and conformity (i.e. blending in with the crowd) are rife and that the impious and the hypocrites have dominated the arena. Therefore, Rorty's "ironist" and Hafez's rend have similarities in certain respects. Rorty's "ironist" has a rebellious and independent character that views everything with a sceptic outlook. Hafez's rend is also an extraordinary combination of scepticism and certitude, and tries to save his life from any sense of belonging and attachment. Rorty's "ironist" is a free person who creatively thinks alternatives. Rend, too, represents outstanding aspects of creativity and delicately protests against the moral degradation and improbity of his age. On the other hand, there are some differences between them as well. One of the most important differences is the difference in poetry insight and doing philosophy. The potentials of poetic language provide Hafez with the possibility of introducing rend as a person who equivocates dauntlessly and incorporates the conflicting elements in itself. However, Rorty's "ironist" emerges as a philosopher (yet a non-essentialist one) and his attempt is focussed upon creating the final vocaublary which are less contradictory and which would be able to persuade the audience. From this perspective, while Hafez's rend tries to find the persuasion in a poetic language which is sarcastic and equivocal, Rorty's "ironist" is pursuing it in a consistent and less contradictory language.
Biannual Journal
azam ghasemi
Abstract
For al-Ghazali, “prophet-hood means preaching God’s words and the prophet is the preacher of God’s words”. The main question of the present study is what part in al-Ghazali’s view the prophet has in knowledge about God and what challenges his views bring. A ...
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For al-Ghazali, “prophet-hood means preaching God’s words and the prophet is the preacher of God’s words”. The main question of the present study is what part in al-Ghazali’s view the prophet has in knowledge about God and what challenges his views bring. A discussion of “miracle” as the reason for the truthfulness of the prophet is absolutely essential for tackling that question. From al-Ghazali’s point of view, prophets’ knowledge is gained through a light shed onto their hearts, rather than through sensations or education. Some recipients of the prophets’ knowledge only imitate what they hear, while some enjoy insights. In al-Ghazali’s work, imitation is of two kinds: acceptable and unacceptable. He believed that Islamic scholars (ūlamā) can achieve understanding on their own and it is only the masses who imitate. One of al-Ghazali’s stances where one could see the role of the prophet in his religious epistemology is on the necessity of thanking the Giver of blessings (wujūb-i shukr-i mun’im): from his point of view, the necessity is jurisprudential and stated by the prophet rather than rational. According to him, reason cannot achieve knowledge about the affairs because of which the prophet was appointed, and this is why the prophet was appointed. But, if reason cannot achieve knowledge about the affairs, how can it affirm the prophet’s prophet-hood and message? In some of his works al-Ghazali regards miracle as the proof for the truthfulness of the prophet. In some others, in addition to miracle he refers to such evidence as prophet’s words, actions, and states in which the prophet was, reported numerously by different narrators and through different chains of transmission. He maintains that the role of reason and theory is merely that through miracle they make sense of the truthfulness of the prophet. Then they depose themselves, admitting that whatever the prophet says about God and the Day of Judgment is acceptable. And this is among the affairs in understanding which reason enjoys no independence. Nor does it understand its impossibility. But even if we involve reason at the stage of proving truthfulness of the prophet, then it is the reason which should affirm the good of the truthfulness (ḥusn-i sidq), thereby jurisprudential good and evil being questioned. From a point of view outside religion and using a rational and argumentative method this study critiqued and examined al-Ghazali’s teaching on prophet-hood, and reached the conclusion that his view changed in his different works. In his theosophical works he said that reason judges that anyone who claims to be a prophet and produces a miracle is necessarily truthful, and then reason withdraws, assumes an instrumental role, and submits to the prophet’s remark. In some other works, however, he does not consider miracle to be enough, as miracle might be confused with magic, and therefore he thinks that proving the prophet’s truthfulness needs further signs. In general, al-Ghazali’s explanation of the epistemological role of the prophet in people’s acquisition of knowledge has many flaws which have been addressed in this article. On the one hand, he acknowledges reason’s limits and thinks that appointment of the prophet is accounted for by the fact that the prophet understands affairs that go beyond reasoning. On the other hand, he states that reason can discern the existence of the prophet as well as the fact that the prophet can understand affairs beyond reasoning. Yet it cannot understand what the prophet understands. There occurs a paradox, which is how it can be rationally proved that a person can understand affairs beyond reasoning. When reason does not have access to the affairs, it might have no judgment: there could be a mention of faith only. Reason can only consider the possibility of such a thing. But it cannot prove it i.e. cannot demonstrate undoubtedly and rationally that the one who is the prophet can understand affairs beyond reasoning. In fact, on the one hand it seems that reason is the chief determinant, as it understands prophet’s truthfulness. On the other hand, even if we ignore the challenges connected to the issue, it seems that the prophet plays a very determinant part in religious knowledge, and that without revelation given by the prophet reason fails to enter the field of religious knowledge. Furthermore, since in al-Ghazali's view the prophet is connected to the main source of knowledge and is taught by God and Gabriel, his words are preferable over limited human reason’s judgment, and thus although al-Ghazali tries hard to provide an argument for prophet’s truthfulness, in his religious epistemology the prophet has the highest status.
Scientific Review
Hooman Mohammad Ghorbanian
Abstract
In his famous 1985 article “What the Tortoise Said to Achilles”, Lewis Carroll offers a regress that suggests that we could never reach the conclusion of a deductive argument. Here, by reviewing Corine Besson`s article, we discuss a solution for his puzzle by suggesting that we should consider ...
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In his famous 1985 article “What the Tortoise Said to Achilles”, Lewis Carroll offers a regress that suggests that we could never reach the conclusion of a deductive argument. Here, by reviewing Corine Besson`s article, we discuss a solution for his puzzle by suggesting that we should consider logical principles as dispositions that guide us in our mental movements; logical principles, in this way, are not some sort of beliefs that represents facts. In articulating this solution, Besson uses a theory in the philosophy of ethics that considers moral judgments as non-cognitive mental states. In logical non-cognitivism, logic is a handbook for deducing. Also, according to logical internalism, non-propositional rules of logic are enough to entail the conclusion and there is no need to add other premises to the argument. Logical expressivism is an approach in the epistemology of logic that regards logic as a self-sufficient knowledge and as a prerequisite for any rational activity.
Keywords: Lewis Carroll, cognitive states, logical non-cognitivism, logical internalism, logical expressivism. Corine Besson.
Biannual Journal
somayeh malleki; Mahdi Emami Jome; nafiseh ahl sarmadi
Abstract
Introduction: Superficial theology and superficial understanding of religion, as a current of thought and belief throughout the history of Islam, has been presented in the form of various ideas and has been influential in social, cultural and moral fields. Mulla Sadra (979-1050 AH) in most of ...
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Introduction: Superficial theology and superficial understanding of religion, as a current of thought and belief throughout the history of Islam, has been presented in the form of various ideas and has been influential in social, cultural and moral fields. Mulla Sadra (979-1050 AH) in most of his works enters into the study and critique of this trend and its consequences in the society of his time. The main issue for him is the critique of superficial theology, which has limited the understanding of religion to the apparent level of texts and religious practice to individual jurisprudence. In most of his works, Mulla Sadra has criticized this kind of understanding of religion and believes that if we put all our efforts in grammar, we cannot provide a correct understanding of religion and religious texts. Therefore, one of the main axes of Sadra's thought is the critique of this type of understanding and the study of its social, political, moral and cultural consequences. In this study, we will conclude that if the ostensible understanding of religion prevails in society, the false moral values will prevail in society, and therefore the people of society will move towards cultural and moral decline every day. Basically, the goal of religion and morality is to value human beings and life. In fact, it should be said that from Mulla Sadra's point of view, there can be a significant relationship between this kind of understanding and interpretation of religion on the one hand and ethics, culture, people and even social and political sovereignty in a society on the other hand. Based on our best knowledge, no article or book has been written independently on the subject of this article in Persian, Arabic and English. However, we can indirectly use the following works to some extent; Emami Jome (2012) in an article entitled Hermeneutic Horizons of Transcendent Wisdom and Social, Cultural Mulla Sadra has studied the hermeneutic foundations of transcendent wisdom and its historical, social and cultural mission. Also, Arshad Riahi and Tabatabai (2016) in an article as strategies for reviving morality in society from the perspective of Sadr al-Muta'allehin to examine the strategies for reviving morality in societies that have been ruled by moral depravity or in the path of separation from values. Divine morality has been established, paid for. Method and Material: In this study, we have assumed that from Mulla Sadar's point of view, there is a significant relationship between a superficial understanding and interpretation of religion and moral, cultural and social issues. To prove this hypothesis, we had a comprehensive overview on documentary, library and content analysis and descriptive methods. Results and Discussion: The type of knowledge of societies about religion is influential in the ethics and culture of the society. Mulla Sadra has had a special view on this issue. He considers religious communities to be prone to religious violence due to the superficiality of scholars also he beleives that unreal scholars at any time, under the support of their rulers, have interpreted the verses of the Qur'an superficially in accordance with their thoughts and ideas, and in fact have imposed their opinions and prejudices on the Qur'an in order to achieve their goals. They have hired religion. The result of using unrealistic scholars for the government is that the government gains legitimacy through them,Therefore, it should be said that Mulla Sadra expresses the situation of his time not only as a complaint but also as a lesson. and it seems that his main concern to be about the future. Basically, the goal of morality should be to value human beings and their lives, and to stand against God's creatures is against human values, and Mulla Sadra pays special attention to this issue. According to Mulla Sadra, as science and knowledge spread in the society, the cultural, moral and existential perfection of the citizens increases and vice versa. If we want to express Mulla Sadra's conception of his time correctly, we must say that in his opinion, his time was a time of decline and a kind of deviation from the main path of human life. Although he could not take a step towards social, cultural and moral education due to the social conditions of his time, but today, with the help of his views, it is possible to provide the necessary and appropriate social, cultural and moral contexts. In this area, it is necessary to pay attention to the material, spiritual and planning needs for the cultural and moral flourishing of Islamic societies at the same time. As a result, it should be said that Mulla Sadra's philosophy is not just a collection of dry philosophical topics; rather, it is a coherent, well-founded, purposeful, dynamic, and practical system of thought, and if its content is considered, it can have a positive impact on human individual and social life. Conclusion: The type of societies' knowledge of religion influences the ethics and culture of that society. Lack of a rational approach to religion can severely adversely affect the family, society, culture, and moral system. Mulla Sadra considers religious communities to be prone to religious violence due to the superficiality of scholars. Unrealistic scholars in every age and time, under the protection of their rulers, have interpreted the verses of the Qur'an superficially according to their thoughts and ideas, and in fact, instead of interpreting the Qur'an, they have imposed their opinions and prejudices on the Qur'an. They have used religion to achieve their goals, as a result of which Mulla Sadra considers the mixing of imperfect scholars with sages and sultans as the cause of any sedition that has taken place in religion. Because religious scholars have a deep-rooted spiritual base among the people, the government can increase its popularity among the people by approaching unrealistic scholars. Mulla Sadra describes the situation of his time not only as a complaint but also as a lesson, and it seems that Mulla Sadra's main concern is with the future.
Biannual Journal
Ahad Nejad Ebrahimi; Minou GharehBaglou; amirhossein farshchian
Abstract
Introduction In Islamic architecture, the architect must be face all the issues in architectural design. Create quantitative & qualitative issues by observing the principles & rules of the process. The architect must create the architectural structure with geometry through art & based on ...
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Introduction In Islamic architecture, the architect must be face all the issues in architectural design. Create quantitative & qualitative issues by observing the principles & rules of the process. The architect must create the architectural structure with geometry through art & based on theoretical reason. Architecture has numerical & theoretical dimensions, because it is for the human being as a thinking being, it has qualitative dimensions. The architect must pay attention to the quantitative & qualitative dimensions in creating the architectural building. Traditional Iranian architecture has quality dimensions that include the wisdom of philosophers & Islamic thinkers of Iran. These topics are combined with the basics of other topics to work. Islamic architecture is called Islamic because it combines with the principles of Islamic wisdom & philosophy in uses it. In order to underst& Islamic architecture, wisdom must be examined in the process of creating an architectural building. The truth of the function of wisdom in the process of creating an architectural structure is an important issue. Wisdom in the science of architectural geometry can mean Coded truths that include the Coded structure of architecture. The Coded truths in Islamic philosophy are the same as the divine truths. God provides knowledge of divine truths to thoughtful & knowledgeable human beings who seek the truths of the universe. Thoughtful human beings become aware of the divine truths of God to the extent of the power of their intellect & perception. Islamic architecture in the l& of Iran has always used the principles & subjects of geometry in external & internal science. The use of geometry is superficial in maps & decorations & inwardly it is an architectural building in general form & body. The geometry used in the Islamic architecture of Iran has been done by Islamic thinkers, mathematicians & Scientists. Geometry in architecture increases the strength of the architecture & its beauty. Geometry has used wisdom in creating the beauty & function of an architectural building. An architectural structure is successful when human beings can meet their biological & spiritual needs through it. A skilled & professional architect can use all external & internal issues in creating an architectural building with wisdom. Geometry must also consider beauty in creating an architectural building through wisdom. Knowledge of geometry & wisdom is very important in creating an architectural building. Architecture as a traditional profession needs wisdom in geometry. In this article, the subject of geometry has been studied & analyzed from a scientific & artistic point of view. Also in this article, the subject of wisdom in geometry in creating an architectural building has been studied. Wisdom in this article is in the form of theoretical wisdom & practical wisdom. The point is, how does mathematics in geometry combine with artistic & aesthetic subjects? & How to create architecture using wisdom? In the present age there is no connection between the subjects of mathematics which are used rationally & the subject of wisdom. This is also seen in the science & art of architecture today. In the past architecture of Iran, there was a deep connection between mathematics & wisdom. In the past architecture of Iran, the connection between wisdom & mathematics in creating geometry has made the architecture of beautifuly & also its proper functionaly. In the science of wisdom, geometry has a meaning in the form of a code & this code has external & internal meanings & truths. The facts in the codes are not normally recognizable by human beings. The code of geometry is in the structure of the universe & has divine truth. Geometry in this world has a trend towards beauty. Wisdom in science belongs to Islamic philosophy. The meaning of wisdom in Islamic philosophy is knowledge & awareness that has been created through reasoning. Argument arises through deep thought in the human mind. Methouds & Material In this research, the views of Islamic mathematicians in the form of mathematics & wisdom have been studied. Islamic mathematicians include the following.Mohamad Bouzajani; Abu Nasr Farabi; Ibn Sina, Akhavan Al-Safa & Jamshid Kashani. The subject of the research method is to obtain geometry & wisdom from the perspective of mathematics. How to transfer geometry from visual and numerical dimensions to the practical world has been analyzed in this method. The success of riddles in the past must be examined in terms of wisdom and geometry. The research method of writing in mathematics and numerical subjects is deductive. The Grounded theory method has also been used in dealing with historical situations. Result & Discussion In Islamic architecture, geometry has been associated with wisdom. Wisdom in geometry has created a beautiful and functional architectural space and decorations. Geometry in the wisdom of Islamic architecture has a sacred place & has hidden secrets. Wisdom & geometry in architectural building, in addition to creating decorative roles in a general & specific way, has led to the recognition of the divine truth in the hidden layers of architectural construction. Accordingly, geometry in Islamic architecture has caused the symbolic identification of the truth of existence and the display of the hidden world. The geometry inside the architectural building is like a code that must be known. In Iranian Islamic architecture, geometry has been used to be aware of divine knowledge as well as to reveal the hidden truths of the divine world in the external world. Geometry has used wisdom for this issue. Conclusion Geometry is hidden in Islamic architecture as a mystery & truth. Geometry in its process shows real tangible subjects along with hidden subjects. Geometry creates awareness of the external & internal codes contained in the architectural building. The geometry of the codes in creating the architectural building in which wisdom plays a role can be identified & informed. In addition to a few topics in Islamic architecture, geometry deals with many qualitative issues. Theoretical wisdom & practical wisdom in understanding the science of geometry can in fact distinguish the outer world and the inner world. Geometry causes the objects that exist in the world of imagination and mentality to become a visible world & human beings can see it with their physical eyes. Geometry creates a logical connection between the external world & the internal world. This logical connection creates a balance between the worlds. Using the balance of geometry, he can distinguish the facts of existence. Geometry in Islamic architecture makes quantities & qualities conscious to man externally & inwardly.
Extension scientific
saeed anvari; Zeynelabidin Hüseyni
Abstract
Extended abstract Introduction In this poem of one thousand couplets (alfīya) which was composed in the eighteenth century, the treatise The Temples of Light has been poetized. There is a separate commentary on the treatise which shall be introduced in a moment. In the present work, Alfiya has ...
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Extended abstract Introduction In this poem of one thousand couplets (alfīya) which was composed in the eighteenth century, the treatise The Temples of Light has been poetized. There is a separate commentary on the treatise which shall be introduced in a moment. In the present work, Alfiya has been edited and published alone. An introductory discussion of Alfiya and the commentary The author of the treatise is a person named Hassan al-Kurdi who has described himself as the “versifier” (nāẓim) and Suhrawardi as “the author”. In his commentary on The Temples of Light, he has used the commentary by Jalal al-Din Davani (d. 1502 AD) on The Temples of Light and the one by Qutb al-Din Shirazi (d.1311 AD) on The Philosophy of Illumination. He has also used several philosophical works to supplement his content. He names Suhrawardi as “Abu al-Faraj Muhammad Suhrawardi”. In some of his couplets the author has referred to Quranic verses and used their themes in his poetry. This Alfiya is subsumed under pedagogical poetry, where the form of poetry is utilized to facilitate learning and memorization of various types of knowledge. In Arabic, this kind of poetry is more in the metre rajaz, which is why it is called arjūza. The first couplet of Alfīya is as follows: Yā ḥayyu yā qayyūm yā dha-l-qūdra / Ayyid wa-thabbitni bi-nūr al-ḥikma The treatise is the second book in which one of Suharawardi’s work is poetized. Prior to that, in the fourteenth century, Imad al-Din Arabshahi Yazdi had versified Suharawardi’s The Lovers’s Companion (Munis al-Ushshaq). Composition’s date As it can be inferred from the introduction to the script, Hassan al-Kurdi lived in Damascus, and he had been writing his commentary from the first day of Ramadan until the Day of Arafa (the ninth day of the month dhi-l-hajja according to the Islamic calendar), i.e. in about one hundred days. At the end of his commentary, he has equated, under the abjad system, the date of finishing his work (1170 AH/ 1756 AD) with the word “ghasqī”. The stamp of Ottoman Sultan Selim III’s Royal Library has been put on the margin of Alfiya and its commentary. On the author In biographical dictionaries, there are different people named Hassan al-Kurdi, but none of them could definitely be said to be the author of the treatise; hence no available information about him. A description of the copies The unique copy of Alfiya numbered 2486 and the commentary script numbered 2515 are housed in Turkey’s Suleymaniyī Library. There are some lacunas in Alfiya, but checked against the couplets in the commentary, finally the number of Alfiya’s couplets is exactly 1000, and the couplets are completely diacriticized. The text of the commentary is mixed with verses of Alfiya, and it has no diacritical marks. From the commentator’s introduction, it can be inferred that Alfiya and the commentary were written by the same person. Scripting is in naskh style and very legible. There are lacunas and errors in both Alfiya and the commentary, which have been corrected on the margins. Research method Because of the uniqueness of the script of Alfia, in editing this treatise the method of editing based upon the original copy was employed. Those verses that have repeated themselves as a result of being mixed with the text of the commentary have been used as the second copy, and the differences are reported in the footnotes. Conclusion Publication of the work can make a contribution to research on Suhrawardi and the history of Islamic philosophy and its impacts.
