Biannual Journal
Abdolrasool Hasanifar
Abstract
Designing an ideal state or a city in which the desirable situation of the human society has been illustrated and the way to its realization is an issue and concern that all the thinkers who have come up with a comprehensive view of their times have followed. To put it in more general terms, it can be ...
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Designing an ideal state or a city in which the desirable situation of the human society has been illustrated and the way to its realization is an issue and concern that all the thinkers who have come up with a comprehensive view of their times have followed. To put it in more general terms, it can be said that this ideal state is a kind of human desire at all times and places so that the human can transcend the present state of the society, in which problems, frustrations and suffering have been added, into an ideal society, not imaginary, to achieve the best opportunities in the city or in other words, human happiness in all fields.Many thinkers have designed a form of the ideal state in their thought. Plato, the Greek philosopher of the Ancient Period, and Muḥammad Iqbāl, an Iranian-Islamic thinker in contemporary times, are among these thinkers who have designed a form of the ideal state in their thought.Despite such a common tendency in designing the ideal state, the type, purpose and principles of this ideal state and the relation between poetry and philosophy are distinct and different in each case. In this regard, considering the importance of this issue and the influence of the thought of the two abovementioned thinkers in our time and territory, the attempt to recognize the ideal state of Plato and Muḥammad Iqbāl, and the differences and the reasons for it, can be the source of many of our time issues.One of the most important aspects of the difference of the thought between these two thinkers is the different view on the role of the poetry and its relation to the philosophy in the ideal state. Accordingly, in this paper, it has been attempted from this point of view that the thought of these two thinkers is examined in a hermeneutic method to explain the reasons for and why this different relation appears in the ideal state.A hermeneutic method and reading the text are used to examine this issue. In other words, it attempts to address the issue by asking questions and research questions against the texts of two thinkers.Accordingly, after a brief introduction of two thinkers and influential foundations of their thought, article describes the ideal state and various aspects of it. In the following, the reasons for the difference in their view of the poetry and poets in relation to the philosophy have been examined.In general, both thinkers in designing their ideal state firstly describe the present situation and problems of their time, and with pathology, they are seeking out and attaining the desired state of the epistemology and ontology.Plato considers the realization of the ideal state in the transition from mythos to Logos and removing the shadows and getting to the true knowledge of ideas, and at the top of them is the good idea, a knowledge that can guide wisdom in all respects and will transcend it from any conventional knowledge with one reality. In Plato's view, such knowledge, which all other sciences are its prelude and premise, must be called as dialectical knowledge, a knowledge which the mind acquires without realizing the sense, and only through a rational activity in the field of abstract affairs, a knowledge that is only available to the philosopher and others do not benefit from it, and for this reason, the ruler of the ideal state must also be such a philosopher.The Ideal state of Iqbāl as a thinker with Iranian-Islamic sides is different from Plato. One of these differences is the emphasis on poetry. In other words, Iqbāl has special attention to persian poetry along with his studies in philosophy and select persian poetry to express their thoughts. This caused a fundamental transformation in his thoughts. In this way, through his poetry Iqbāl was able to keep alive the persian culture in the India at the time when Britain tried to change the culture of India by changing the language. On the other hand, Iqbāl created a new capacity and field for contemporary poetry, a capacity that had long been neglected.Iqbāl's ideal state can be found in works such as "So what should the eastern people do?", "Message from the East" (Payām-i Mashriq), "Persian Psalms", Zabūr-i ʿAjam, and "Jāwīd Nāma". At first, Iqbāl criticizes the state of the human and today's modern world, designing the world and another human being from this perspective. Iqbāl regards the modern society as a kind of absolutism, which is the result of mankind's misery.Against such a situation that both the west is caught up with and also that it has alienated the east from itself, Iqbāl sees the solution as the ideal state that it is based on solid principles in which man is not alien to himself and his world. Although no specific name can be called on this city, Iqbāl has called this city in Jāwīd Nāma as "Marghdīn", a city that the description and features of it have been mentioned in Iqbāl's various works. It is a city that is beautiful in appearance and it is healthy in terms of living conditions, where humans are not captive and alien to themselves.Plato's and Iqbāl's view of the ideal state in the relation of the poetry and philosophy are fundamentally different. Generally, Plato has a negative attitude toward the poetry in the ideal state, and considers the poetry and poets against philosophy and philosophers while Iqbāl thoroughly believes in the positive role of the poetry in the ideal state and with emphasizing the relation between the poetry and philosophy, he considers the same the poet and philosopher based on purpose. The main reason for this difference is the method of the attitude of these two thinkers towards the poetry from the epistemic aspect. Plato does not consider the poetry to be any knowledge and reality and therefore, in the ideal state that philosophers are ruling, he orders the rejection of the poetry and the banishment of the poets from the ideal state. But in Iqbāl's thought, the poetry has knowledge and reflects reality and even due to its profound influence, any further knowledge comes to the work of reforming the city and society. Therefore, with a deep link between the philosophic knowledge and poetry, the philosopher and poet are one in Iqbāl's view and both of them have rational knowledge and their presence is essential for the ideal state.
Biannual Journal
Morteza Hosseinzadeh; Sahar Kavandi; Mohsen Jahed
Abstract
The truth of knowledge was considered by western philosophers and epistemologists long time ago unclear sentence. They were mostly foundationalists or coherentists in the justification element. Muslim philosophers specifically paid attention to the problem of knowledge, and defined it as constant certainty ...
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The truth of knowledge was considered by western philosophers and epistemologists long time ago unclear sentence. They were mostly foundationalists or coherentists in the justification element. Muslim philosophers specifically paid attention to the problem of knowledge, and defined it as constant certainty corresponding reality. In consideration of ternary definition of knowledge, it can be deduced that Muslim philosophers accepted the corresponding theory in truth element, and accepted foundationalism in justification element. Though, epistemological model of Sadra is different from those of Muslim philosophers in consideration of different evaluations of statements, and emphasis on different role and place of proof and mystic intuition in reaching knowledge, and on the other hand, by accepting that knowledge is existential, and by reducing conceptual knowledge to immediate knowledge. Understanding of Mulla Sadra's theory requires examining his method of the justification element. Various aspects are indicated to distinguish between the Transcendent Philosophy and other philosophical schools. In this view, mystic intuition can play a justifying role. From viewpoint of Mulla Sadra, what should be followed are proof and mystic intuition. In the Sadra’s system, revelation is the criterion for evaluation of mystic intuition. So, reaching knowledge demands the existence of proof or mystic intuition, and the truth of the latter should be evaluated by the revelation. Epistemic system of Sadra is formed by three elements of proof, mystic intuition, and revelation being interrelated to each other. Explaining the epistemological role of proof, mystic intuition, and revelation addresses the context of justification, uncovering the theory of the Transcendent Philosophy about the knowledge. Methods This study describes the problems, analyzes them, and in some cases, criticizes them using a literature review. Results and discussion After determination of the ternary epistemic elements, viz. proof, mystic intuition, and revelation, it can be concluded that real knowledge is gained through proof or mystic intuition. In an initial look, it seems that proof and mystic intuition are different, but since he believes that real knowledge is the immediate knowledge, it can be believed that proof and mystic intuition are single and the same, and that the reality of both is the existential encountering with non-material reality. Each of proof and mystic intuition is preparing a cause for encountering non-material existence and gaining knowledge. After considering the theories that set forth the justifying element in the Sadra’s system, and examining their faults according to this system, another theory is reached herein about justifying element, which is not just foundationalism or coherentism. Conclusion In our opinion, in consideration of epistemological foundations of the Transcendent Philosophy, one cannot believe that Mulla Sadra's theory of justification is the same as those of other Muslim epistemologists. Mulla Sadra's theory of justification is a compound one that authors named it as “existential foundherentism”. From the viewpoint of Mulla Sadra, proof and mystic intuition (purification of the soul) are the preparing causes for the existential encountering of non-material existence, and consequently, for justifying the beliefs. Coherentism of Mulla Sadra and his reliance on proof is the realm of conceptual knowledge. This means that in the realm of conceptual knowledge, he believes in two kinds of statements, i.e. foundational and non-foundational, and justifies the latter by the former. Mulla Sadra's cohrtentism implies his belief of conceptual knowledge to be compatible with immediate knowledge, the latter being compatible to the former. In consideration of Mulla Sadra's foundation, the reality of proof and mystic intuition is unique and the same, and that reality is immediate encountering the object of knowledge. This encountering, as a result, is a product of proof or purification of the soul, that is, both promote the existence of the knower and put him/her in the presence of object of the knowledge, and just here, object of the knowledge attends for the knower and the identity of knower and known occurs. The compound theory named “existential foundherentism”, pays attention both to the role of proof and the mystic intuition. Although in some of his works, Mulla Sadra only emphasizes the proof for justifying the statements, his final viewpoint is to follow proof or mystic intuition, and that proof proves, hence it cannot be incompatible with the mystic intuition, and real proof is not against to the mystic intuition.
Biannual Journal
Einullah Khademi; Abdullah Salavati; Leila Purakbar; Marveh Dolatabadi
Abstract
This essay seeks to explain Mulla Sadra's philosophical-mystical encounter with the problem of death. The main question of this study is the explanation of the truth of death and its aspects from Mulla Sadra’s point of view. In this article, we do not merely focus on the philosophical vision of ...
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This essay seeks to explain Mulla Sadra's philosophical-mystical encounter with the problem of death. The main question of this study is the explanation of the truth of death and its aspects from Mulla Sadra’s point of view. In this article, we do not merely focus on the philosophical vision of Mulla Sadra on death; rather, we explain the mystical views of Mulla Sadra, independently from his philosophical ideas, too. Thus, this research is innovative in its simultaneous explanation of the philosophical and mystical truth of death and its aspects from Mulla Sadra’s perspective. In his ontology, Mulla Sadra provides an account of the evolutionary course of the soul's development relying on such principles as principality of existence, the free trans-substantial motion, corporeal creation and spiritual survival of soul and specific multiplicity. He believes that human soul is of hierarchical degrees ranging from the mere deficiency to the ultimate perfection and precisely, the triple worlds of soul are associated with the triple ontological worlds and death happens in these worlds. Moreover, Mulla Sadra uses the principles of mystics, particularly the Knowledge of Names (ʿIlm al-ʾAsmāʾ), in order to analyze various aspects of the problem of death. The current study has been conducted based on the method of content analysis. Using this method, Mulla Sadra's encounter with death is investigated through exploration of the ontological factors as well as different aspects of death and its relation with evolution, eternity and life, and the analysis of foundations of death within the framework of Individual unity of existence and its gradational unity. Achievements of the current research are as follows:1) According to Mulla Sadra, death is a natural phenomenon which has its origin in the soul's turning her face away from the sensible world and paying attention to God and His Heavens. He describes death as the existential development of soul and believes that the soul, in the end of its evolutionary journey, enters the world of intellects and becomes united with Active Intellect and in higher stages with the First Intellect. Mulla Sadra opines that human’s otherworldly existence is the perfected form of his worldly existence and when the existential substance of the soul becomes intensified and strong and the soul reaches the last stage of its worldly existence, it departs its worldly existence and heads to the otherworld. In fact, the soul after death joins a superior existence, i.e. otherworldly existence, and gets existentially promoted.Moreover, in the system of existence unity, man is the manifestation of God's existential perfections that emerges under the decree of the Name "The First and The Manifest" (Al-Awwal and Al-Ẓāhir) and under the decree of the Name "The Last" (Al-Ākhir), he returns to go with all his perfections. But due to the existence of worldly veils before the death, man is deprived of a complete union with the Intellects and reaching God as well as being a perfect manifestation of Divine Perfections; thus, death provides the necessary context for understanding this union and achieving the existential perfections. 2) Based on his philosophical principles like principality of existence, gradational unity, the trans-substantial motion, and particularly the corporeal creation and spiritual survival of soul, Mulla Sadra proves that the soul enjoys a natural existence in the beginning of its occurrence; however, in the following, based on its free trans-substantial motion, it undergoes through essential evolution and joins the world of immaterial entities; finally, it changes into an incorporeal entity. In this situation, due to the essential simplicity of the soul, it is not annihilated and also the soul becomes eternal following its union with the divine intellects. According to Sadra, soul intrinsically seeks after eternity and hates annihilation; because the eternity is among the attributes of the superior entities (intellect); then, the soul is essentially interested in eternity and glorifies the highest modes.According to the individual unity of existence, soul is eternal as the manifestation of the Divine Eternity. Based on the knowledge of Names of mystics, the man is the manifestation of the decrees governing the world as long as he is in this world; after his going to the otherworld, the decrees of the Names of this world become dormant and the decrees of the Names of the otherworld prevail and he turns in to the manifestation of the Names governing the otherworld. Thus, the physical body and whatever else that exists in this material world is not annihilated with the death, rather it returns to dormancy state and its manifestation is gradually reduced. Therefore, death means transferring the manifestation of the Divine Names proportionate to the existential worlds for man.3) According to the philosophical thought of Mulla Sadra, life is co-extensive (Musāwiq) with existence [life and existence represent the same extension] and every being enjoys as much life as its existential breadth allows. Thus, human life is a function of his/her existential level (ontological plane) and the latter is in turn a function of one's perceptual level (rational level); with an intensive gradational evolution, man reaches the highest levels of existence, i.e. ideal existence; then, it reaches the intellectual existence, and as a result, he enjoys a more perfect and superior perception and life. Thus, human’s true life lies in his intellectual life and since the life in the otherworld is an intelligible and incorporeal life, death makes the transition to this level of life, possible.This goal can be achieved in this world; but its complete realization becomes possible via death and one's transmission to the world of incorporeity; because these existential worlds are purified of all types of diversity and material taints; as a result, the beings in it have an independent life and will enjoy the higher levels of life and its effects.Additionally, according to Mulla Sadra, in the system of individual unity of existence, existents are among the existential attributes of God. Since the life of God is true, original and eternal, the man, as the perfect manifestation of the Divine Presence, his life is corresponded with God’s life and by the relation with the Truth, it makes sense; also, according to the manifestation of the Names, he enjoys a higher level of life; however, since the highest level of life is the otherworldly life which is essential and true, man will understand the true meaning of life only with death and transmission to the otherworld.
Biannual Journal
Hadi Rabiei; Mitra Ghafari
Abstract
"Mohakat" (Muḥākāt) is a central concept in Avicenna's thoughts on art. He uses this term as a translation for Aristotelian "mimesis". Since there have been different conceptions about Mohakat, or representation, in the history of thought, it should be questioned that what Mohakat means in painting ...
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"Mohakat" (Muḥākāt) is a central concept in Avicenna's thoughts on art. He uses this term as a translation for Aristotelian "mimesis". Since there have been different conceptions about Mohakat, or representation, in the history of thought, it should be questioned that what Mohakat means in painting according to Avicenna's views. In studies about the aesthetics of Avicenna, poetry and music have been much considered, but Avicenna's views on painting have not been much noticed in the literature. The present research, therefore, seeks to provide a clear account of Avicenna's views on the concept and the meaning of Mohakat in painting, and in other words, to determine the characteristic features of Mohakat in painting according to his views. It is tried to answer this question by examining Avicenna's scattered words about painting. In this study, the aesthetic views of Avicenna on Mohakat are summarized in three general themes. The nature of Mohakat in painting is examined in the first part, the sub-queries of which are as follows: is the meaning of Mohakat pure and complete imitation, or is this kind of representation compatible with innovation? What are the cases of Mohakat, and in other words, what kinds of objects are represented in a painting? Does the painter merely represent the existing things, or he/she can deal with things that are not actual existing only in his mind? Does the painter only represent the surfaces of the things, or can he/she represent the inner qualities of the subject? What is the relation of Mohakat in painting with that in such other arts as poetry and music? The second part addresses the pleasure of Mohakat. This aesthetic pleasure is considered about both the artist and the audience. It should be inquired that are there any differences between the pleasure of the Mohakat in painting and that in the other arts? Is this pleasure dedicated to humans, or other beings can also benefit from it? The third part discusses the epistemic role of the Mohakat in painting. Is the picture necessarily true, in the sense that it should correspond to an actual object, or may it offer a non-correspondent knowledge to the audience? If so, how does it influence the audience' soul? Finally, can a painting be a good medium for transferring knowledge? And in this case, what is the characteristic features of it? In this research, it has been attempted to respond to above questions using library resources, mainly Avicenna's works, specially his scattered words about painting. Avicenna believes that the work of a poet resembles that of a painter, both imitate something. He defines Mohakat as "presenting something similar to something else, but not the thing itself." Nevertheless, he believes that Mohakat in painting does not imply mere imitation of a model. Mohakat in painting is not merely the imitation of existing objects, and it is not necessary for the painter to make use of a model that presents in the outside world, that is, Mohakat in painting is not merely an imitation of outward appearance. In other words, the painter can portray, in addition to the outward appearance of someone, his/her inward states. Considering the relation that Avicenna has made between the kind of Mohakat in poetry and painting, it can be concluded that from his point of view, imagination has an important role in the definition of painting. Avicenna describes imitated painted forms as "pleasurable" and "delightful", and regards the ability of imitating things as one of the aspects of human superiority over animals. He emphasizes that the pleasure of Mohakat is not purely sensual pleasure and dedicated to it, rather, it is a mental pleasure and depends on the rational faculty. The audience of a painting is enjoying two things: first, the picture itself in terms of its quality and status, and the like. It seems that, according to amodern interpretation, it may imply color, composition, and formal features of the image. But on the second level, the thing that completes the pleasure is to understand that the image is an imitation of something else. Avicenna believes that the pleasure of painting is so great that it is more enjoyable to see a painting of an object than the object itself. There is also a kind of pictorial Mohakat in the music. From his point of view, Mohakat in the painting is not necessarily true or false. Truth and falsehood in painting is beyond logical truth and falsehood. Avicenna believes that painting can make people charmed and fascinated, and engage the mind of human beings. Also, Mohakat in painting can be a means of expressing rational meanings in sensible language using a coded form.
Biannual Journal
Fahimeh Shariati
Abstract
Despite the physicalistic approach to the mind in the present century, the existence of the mental states different from body states has caused various scales to be put forth regarding mental issues, the most important of which are awareness, being first person, and intentionality. Awareness possesses ...
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Despite the physicalistic approach to the mind in the present century, the existence of the mental states different from body states has caused various scales to be put forth regarding mental issues, the most important of which are awareness, being first person, and intentionality. Awareness possesses an extensive domain incorporating senses, perceptions, recalling, visual representation, tendencies, imagination, beliefs, and thoughts. Being a first person means immediate reception such as all the intuitive perceptions deployed as opposed to acquisitive ones. In fact, it can be stated that the indicators mean presence by one’s own self. The intentionality means reference to a thing or being about a thing. In a mental issue, a man gains a certain experience, such as hope or doubt, in regard of a certain issue in the external world. Such mental affairs as doubt, hope, belief, and so forth are issues that have an attachment to a thing in the world outside and make reference thereto; doubt in…, hope in…, and belief in… are all characteristics of this intentionality. This is the common attribute of all voluntary actions and sensory perceptions as well. Intentionality is indeed a personal representation of the external world. Each of these indicators has difficulties in representation of mental issues. As opined by some, awareness is so diverse that it has to be separately defined for each of its type. For example, qualitative awareness cannot be grouped in a class with phenomenal awareness. In some others’ opinions, awareness is a process, not a phenomenon. It also exists in animals because of the similarity of their cerebral structure to human beings, even though it is more advanced in the latter. Another case of breach in introducing the indicator as an index of mental issue should be sought in human being’s unconscious states. The existing shortfall in regard of being first person is that there are many non-intermediated and immediate affairs that are not mental. Can pain be truly considered mental as ruled based on this indicator while it can be imagined by all the creatures? Meanwhile, the intentionality is a less flawed indicator. Investigations on the Transcendent Philosophy (Ḥikmat-i Mutaʿālīa;) are well reflective of the importance of ego attention or notice. Mulla Sadra made use of intention or attention of ego (soul) in his works about God, human beings and other creatures such as animals, plants and inanimate ones. It means that the concept was applied in Mulla Sadra’s works for three types of existents, namely necessary being, speaker (thinker) existent, and all other non-speaker existents. The use cases of ego attention and intention will be examined regarding the human actions in the Transcendent Philosophy so as to conclude that how and under what conditions the ego (soul) intention can be introduced as a criterion for distinguishing non-bodily from bodily affairs? Perception: Sadr al-Mutiʾallihīn knows perception nothing more than ego (soul, nafs) attention. Acquisition of Sciences: In some expressions, Mulla Sadra states that all the perceptions related to the human mind in a rank by rank manner in sum, and realizes them all as the result of ego’s attention to intellect and the heart of the truths. Creativity: A type of extrinsic ego attention is intended in the Transcendent Philosophy in which intention is directed from a superior being, the Righteous One, to the inferior being, the creatures. The attention, by itself, causes the inscription of the truths in the ego and generates creativities as well. Liberty (Ikhtīyār) and Intentionality: In the Transcendent Philosophy, the type of human deeds and behaviors or human liberty is a function of non-essential ego attention to the two general extreme ends. Actions are purposive as long as they are functions of this attention or intention. Judgment: Judging the right or wrong is nothing more than paying attention to the connection of a sentence’s components. Worships and Prayers: Mulla Sadra constantly speaks of an inherent intention inside all the creatures in their doing of their deeds, and this makes the nature of things move in a certain direction. But, as for the human beings, consideration of attention or not disregarding the attention is unique and specific. Guess, Thought: intellectual issues are obtained by a middle term. It means that there is a need for a middle term in order to be able to figure out knowns from unknowns, thereby, to arrive at intelligibles. Pleasures and Pains: Joy is the perception of consistency and compliance of an issue with the human nature. Love and Zeal: An intentionality of ego is named zeal and love. In a sort of classification, Mulla Sadra divides attention and intention into two sets, namely innate (inherent) and unnatural (extrinsic). In another general categorization, he divides the intention into intention to superior things and intention to inferior things. In this way, although attention or intention of a thing is shared by human beings and other creatures, its application is vividly divided into two parts, called “essential attention” and “non-essential attention”, and he excludes various kinds of attention in animals. Amongst the human actions as well, such indicators as “nonphysical” or “ego-oriented” are “ego’s non-essential attentions” based on the Transcendent Philosophy. The “essential ego attention” is the necessary and enough condition in distinguishing the ego-oriented affairs. The indicator “essential intention” is succinctly characterized by awareness because not all sorts of insights are required for a mental issue. This latter indicator encompasses all the other distinctions as well, is conclusive and exclusive of all the mental issues, and is in perfect coordination with the other basics of ego study by Mulla Sadra.
Biannual Journal
Batoul Fallah Barzoki; Reza Rouhani
Abstract
The science of method or methodology analysis is used in different meanings and purposes and in different sciences by researchers. Methodology can be examined at several levels. First, methodology realizes the way of delivering and presenting the content. Second, it includes techniques and types of research ...
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The science of method or methodology analysis is used in different meanings and purposes and in different sciences by researchers. Methodology can be examined at several levels. First, methodology realizes the way of delivering and presenting the content. Second, it includes techniques and types of research methods. Third, it comprises paradigms and selection among rival paradigms in the context of research questions. The issue more intended in this article is the meaning of methodology, that is, the presentation of Qushayrī's method (way, approach, attitude), and description, classification, and analysis of his methods in collection, analysis and defense of data and claims in the book al-Risālat al-Qushayrīat. Methods The research approach of this thesis is descriptive-analytic by which writers have tried to analyze and describe Qushayrī's general approaches in order to write this thesis by this method. Discussion Background To the authors’ knowledge, in such an issue as methodology, al-Risālat al-Qushayrīat is not regulated with a particular book. The available book and relatively coherent research book in al-Risālat al-Qushayrīat is consensually confidant, in which the writer has introduced different aspects of the book. In the field of stylistic texts of Sufism, Mohammad Gholamrezayi writes the style of Sufi prose, which is a good work in the field of mystical works and addresses the general issues of stylistic Persian prose from the fifth century to the end of the seventh century, and also some of the first works of the eighth century. Results and discussion Al-Risālat al-Qushayrīat, by the composer Abdulkarīm ībn Hawāzan Qushayrī, a famous writer and commentator of fifth A.H century, is a martingale piece in the Sufism aspect of Khurāsān, which intrinsically is a key and reference piece in basics and bases, instructions, formalities, and also elder's recital and sayings of Sufism men. In this thesis, the piece is known in terms of macro and general approaches and attitudes in the way of collection, receiving facts, analysis and assessment, and defense of information and data introduce original titles, collection methods, approaches, compilation resources, and goals in the book Al-Risālat al-Qushayrīat. The purpose of compilation of this thesis to determine the elements, classification, and analysis method of Qushayrī's approaches and attitudes in advertisement and defense of Sufism, resources of Qushayrī, and the utilization methods. This study demonstrates that the thesis is a descriptive and issue-oriented research, and that Qushayrī wrote it to instruct, satisfy, and acquit himself and Sufis of criticizers’ accusations. In addition, the aspect of argument based on power is also featured in the treatise. The author used speech advocates’ methods and approaches, Hadith advocate's approaches, mystical approaches, and even jurisprudence approaches in writing and compiling the piece to attain his instructive-mystical goals. Qushayrī has used different resources such as Qurʾān, Ḥadīth, religious books of other religions, usual stories among people, teaching sessions, and professors and Sufism elders, as well as the books written about Sufism before him as a further reason, witness, and proof of himself in writing the Risāla;. In general, the use of the pathological and intuitive way, and the inner methods, the basis of the law, the tendency towards asceticism and ethics, the tendency to practicalism, based on the religious and religious reasons, the use of verbal and philosophical reasoning methods as the propagation of Sufism and its defense, addressing the issues of Samāʿ and Kirāmat, the tendency towards the elements of Sufism in Khurāsan, and the semantic approach to the verses are all the characteristics of the work of Qushayrī in the treatise. Qushayrī's general goals in writing the thesis are more defensive and instructive, illuminating the tie between religion, lifestyle, and acquittal of Sufis of accusations. He further provides the beliefs of this tribe to party line, and also instruction origins, basics, formalities, and Sufism advocate's terminologies to the contacts by the wayfarers, followers, and the public. Personal, mental, religious, believing, social, political reasons, and elements can be among the most important elements in writing and compiling the book. Conclusion Qushayrī in his issue-oriented and descriptive piece (Al-Risālat al-Qushayrīat) uses historical and reportal methods, and descriptive and logical (based on loyalty) method as an analysis and assessment of information (and defense of claims). He has used different approaches including speech advocate's approaches, tellers of Ḥadīth, juris consults and Gnostics to attain his instructive, satisfying, and educative goals. Qushayrī's resources in the thesis are various considering method, content, instructive, religious, and mystical goals; he also uses more Qurʾān, Ḥadīth and also elder's sayings of Sufism. The way he encounters the others’ vote is more descriptive and reportal. In general, in the restatement of Al-Risālat al-Qushayrīat, the educational aspect is more tangible than the educational one, and the features of this work derive from the former aspect.
Biannual Journal
Seyed Mohammad Amin Moshkforoosh; Mahdi Azimi
Abstract
According to psychologism, laws of logic and mathematics are not anything except generalized accounts of thought patterns which govern human's mind. Therefore, the content of laws of logic is merely subjective idea created by the human mind. If the structure of the mind was different from our actual ...
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According to psychologism, laws of logic and mathematics are not anything except generalized accounts of thought patterns which govern human's mind. Therefore, the content of laws of logic is merely subjective idea created by the human mind. If the structure of the mind was different from our actual structure, then the laws of logic would be something different from the laws existing now. For Frege, this theory is on the basis of the conceptualism and idealism of the meaning of the words. Frege believes that the meanings of propositions, which he called "Thought", are a distinct matter from "Ideas", which exist in every individual's mind. Frege's arguments endeavor to prove it via two basic reasonings, as stated in this article. The absence of common discourse, which changes language to an individual matter, as well as the presentation of "epistemological relativism" are two vicious consequences, which is the course of accepting the matter that there is no distinction between "Thought" and "Idea". In Frege’s view, if psychologism were true, everything would be reduced to "Idea". And if everything reduces to "Idea", "Thought" will be "Idea" as well; however, "Thought" is not "Idea". Therefore, psychalogism is void. When Frege tries to explain why Thought is not the same as Idea, he starts with the Idea properties. Frege believes that Ideas are dependent on individual (Individual-dependent), and are always dependent, hence, cannot exist without their owner independently. Each Idea only belongs to one person (individual) can never be the owner of another’s Idea. Our own Ideas naturally and essentially are so related to our consciousness realm that each Idea owned by every person is distinct from our own Idea only belonging to ours. If two persons have one Idea, it is necessary that Ideas exist independently from them, which is in contrast to the hypothesis and essence of Idea. In his first arguments, Frege declares that if Thought is the same as Idea, it would not be possible to have common perception about one Thought, therefore, identical meaning, and as a result conversation (common discourse), would not exist. So, language would change into an individual private matter. This outcome is a result of individual-dependent (relative to subjects) relative to characteristic of Idea. His second argument is in the same direction as the first one, stating that if Thought is the same as Idea, contradiction between two Thoughts would not be possible. Because there is no identical criterion by which people (person who are communicating) could evaluate their perception, verify the validity of their viewpoints, and discover the contradiction of their thoughts toward others. Also, dispute over Truth would be vain. It is like the quarrel between two persons who fight over being an original 100 Marks banknote in their pocket. Each of them believes that only the banknote in his/her own pocket is original, then all the science would not be only as superstition. Frege in his second arguments illustrate that epistemological relativism and individualism are vicious consequents of psychologism. This research investigates the criticism of some classic logicians and contemporary thinkers on Islamic philosophy. They have declared that Frege does not distinguish between conceptualism and psychologism and also between existence of Idea and its indication. Moreover, they criticize Frege's affirmative theory about grasping of thought. In this research, it becomes clear that Frege's objections to conceptualism (psychological individualism) are still valid. There is no convincing reply to these objections yet. The approach of this research concentrates on the Frege's negative reasoning in the criticism of psychologism, not on the Frege’s affirmative views on the manner of Thought perceptions.
Biannual Journal
Seyed Mehdi Mirhadi
Abstract
The history of topics related to action can be clearly documented in the history of philosophy and its various periods from ancient Greece to the present, as well as in the history of Islamic philosophy. In the Greek philosophy, Aristotle has put forward his own views one practice in his book “On ...
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The history of topics related to action can be clearly documented in the history of philosophy and its various periods from ancient Greece to the present, as well as in the history of Islamic philosophy. In the Greek philosophy, Aristotle has put forward his own views one practice in his book “On the Soul”. In the medieval philosophy, Aquinas, and in western contemporary philosophy, Hobbes, Hume, Anscombe, and Davidson, in particular, have focused on the action. Also, Islamic philosophers have paid attention to the issue of action, in particular Mulla Sadra, who has a special position due to discuss issues such as the quiddity of the action, and the why of and the quality of the action effects on the soul. Using five main questions, this paper seeks to present a preliminary plan for the philosophy of action in the Transcendent Philosophy of Mulla Sadra. The first question is the philosophy of human presence in the world and the role of action at the end of such a presence. In the second question, the relationship between action and body and the preparative role of the body (the creation of physical action) is described as the essential condition for the creation of the inner form of action in the soul. The quiddity of the action, the why and effects of action, and the quality of the action influence on the soul, as well as other questions are explained by the philosophy of action in the Transcendent Philosophy. In general view, Mulla Sadra's perception of the action can be paid attention as the basis of his theory about quiddity and quality of action and its relation with the soul. In this perception, the action, as an external existence similar to other external realities and objects, in order to associating with the soul, is required to unify with the soul by its immaterial form. Methodology The method of analysis and deduction was used according to the issue. Results and Discussion Human being is the only creature whose capacity to acquire new abilities is unlimited. Actualizing (becoming existence) this capacity and disposition can be a good reason for our entry and presence in this world, since the initial actuality is just a factuality and pre-disposition, and if it remains at this stage, there will in fact be nothing. In Mulla Sadra's view, the action is the incipience of the formation of attributes, and attributes is the incipience of the acquisition of knowledge and science. Thus, for example, the repeated fulfillment of the acts of kindness leads to the establishment of the attribute and the habit of kindness in us. In his view, it is important that, because of our kindness, we have a different perception of existence as compared to someone who is unkind. We act (having good behavior with others) through the body that is realized and actual, so that what is in potency in us (the potentiality of human being kindness) but not actual at the beginning of our birth, is realized and we are attributed. For him, the good and evil of action relate to an aspect of action (the effect on the soul) that has survival and stability, and an aspect of action (combination of moves that creates the appearance of an action) that does not remain and does not exist in ourselves lacked identity and attribution to goodness or evil. Actions are effects of our existence, and we are the subject and the cause of them. For Mulla Sadra, intention is the identity of action. The intention of action is of mode of soul and determining the degree of perfection of action. Human beings have the ability to become species with different intentions and actions. Mulla Sadra introduces the action as planting seeds in the earth of the heart, and the intentions as seeds. He believes that "each of us (his being) is his intention." Mulla Sadra has paid a special attention to the effects of the action arising from the fact that action makes the identity. In his view, "Anyone who does something, an effect of it (action) is occurred in the soul, and as the effects are repeated in the soul, the habits are formed." The formation of habits, as the moral attributes, the acquisition of knowledge, and the formation of human essence (existence), are all the most important effects of human action. When someone observes something by the camera, nobody says that the camera is looking and it is clear that we watch ourselves. Similar to this example, in terms of Mulla Sadra, the soul has the same relationship with its perceptual faculties (senses, imagination, intellect), and the faculty of motion and senses. The true subject of all acts is the soul. In this way, for example, violence against others by hand is the action of the soul (not the action of hand); therefore, its effect will also belong to the soul. Conclusion The action is the unique human facility to build one’s own religion and world, and the world is a glancing opportunity to act. The human body is the means of providing the possibility of action. The body is the servant of the soul (nafs) in order to realize our eternal life by depreciating itself under the will of the soul during our lifetime. The formation of humanistic or inhumanistic habits, the acquisition of knowledge, the progress or obstruction of the hearts into the path of intuition of the existence facts, the realization of human entity, and the acquisition of happiness or adversity for the human soul are become possible by the action. The action has an external existence that is the motion of bodily organs and limbs. Also, the action has an inner existence which is the inner form (immaterial and unified with soul) of action. In this way, as actions are different outside of mind, the inward form and the soulful existence of actions will also be different. The difference of the inward forms actions means that every external actions, after being transformed into an esoteric form and unified with soul, leads to a special and distinct effect from the other acts. Gradually, by the repetition of actions, the habits (humanistic or inhumanistic attributes) and the identity of human beings are formed, and the human souls are distinguished from each other.
Biannual Journal
Abouzar Norouzi; Mohsen Shiravand
Abstract
Allameh Tabataba'i (Seyed Mohammad Hossein Tabataba'i) is a classic philosopher in the tradition of the Transcendent Philosophy and a great commentator of the Holy Qur'an. His thoughts are not, however, limited to these two areas. He has new ideas in other epistemic areas as well, including ethics. The ...
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Allameh Tabataba'i (Seyed Mohammad Hossein Tabataba'i) is a classic philosopher in the tradition of the Transcendent Philosophy and a great commentator of the Holy Qur'an. His thoughts are not, however, limited to these two areas. He has new ideas in other epistemic areas as well, including ethics. The main area in ethics is undoubtedly the division of schools into moral realism and non-realism. The purpose of this research is to analyze the issue of Allameh Tabataba'i's position in these categories and to gloss the philosophical subjects which describe this issue? This paper tries to address this issue by analyzing and explaining the issue of "Iʿtibārīyāt" (fictions) and "sensation". Methods This paper is written in a documentary-analytical way. Results and Discussion In the theory of Iʿtibārīyāt (Fictions), we have the following propositions: Each of delusive meanings is based on the truth; each delusive limit that we present in a referent, has another real referent that has been taken from it; indeed, the consideration is not untruthful; The moral propositions are the model and representation of the Causality, which even manifests itself in mental conceptions; The obligation state of "ought" has been taken in all fictions from the obligation of “necessity” and, therefore, the state of prohibition will be taken from the necessity of “privation”. Rational men’s Fictions are based on criterions and truths. They judge that justice or honesty are goodness, because they think that both of them are always helpful to the interests and purposes of society. Real effects are predicated on these Affairs. Accordingly, it can be deduced that the consideration of good and evil is the result of the general necessity that the pre-community human being considers inevitably. Goodness and badness are natural particulars. Their favorability and acceptance or unfavorability and disacceptance are perceived by the faculty of perception. Moreover, any freewill act is done with using the state of "necessity". therefore, when we do any action we believe that doing that action bases on the requirement of the active power (quwwat faʿʿālat). Good and bad are defective and, unlike truth and falsity, are true sentences that describe the attributes of the action and the harmony between the action and the goal (telos). Whenever a person considers something to achieve his/her goal and interest of the action, and the consideration and goal are rational, it will be useful and otherwise abolished and unnecessary. Moral judgments are not pure considerations, but based on the truths of the world, mankind, noumenal interests and evil aspects, and have their own real and special effects. The difference between true knowledge and considerative (mentally-posited) one is that true knowledge is abstracted from the outside world of mind. True knowledge is called truth (ṣidq) Corresponding to truth in the outside world of mind, and is called right (ḥaq) because the outside world of mind corresponds to it. Consequently, the meaning of truth and right is that this mental truth is exactly the same as the external reality, and the external reality is the same as the truth that it is in the mind. But considerative knowledge is realized only in the mind and does not correspond to the outside world of the mind unless an interest of our interests impels us considering it factual. The fact of predicate of these propositions of cases is depends on the consistency and mismatch with the opinions of scholars and rational men. The creation (inshāʾ) of scholars are not vain, and goes back to the realm of their understanding of realities. Conclusion Therefore, the following achievement can be guided: the considerative meanings are taken from the realities. The considerative obligation, through the scholar’s consideration, is taken from real obligation for acquisition of goal and interest of the action. The considerative propositions of ethics are based on the realities of the universe and mankind and the noumenal interests and evil aspects, and have their own real and special effects. Corresponding to Allameh's view, although propositions of ethics and creative propositions are cognate, and thus they are not in the cycle of real propositions that are capable of being truth or falsity, but the reality of moral propositions and judgments and judgments is explained in terms of their intentions and goals according to the beliefs of scholars and their perception of reality. Thus, the view of Allameh Tabataba'i in his epistemic system stays on defining moral realism.
Biannual Journal
Mahmoud Hedayatafza
Abstract
Being familiar with various philosophical sources and schools, Mulla Sadra sometimes provides diverse answers to some of the philosophical or theological problems, including in regard of the elaboration of God’s inherent characteristics for which three different solutions can be inferred from Mulla ...
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Being familiar with various philosophical sources and schools, Mulla Sadra sometimes provides diverse answers to some of the philosophical or theological problems, including in regard of the elaboration of God’s inherent characteristics for which three different solutions can be inferred from Mulla Sadra’s works. He constantly keeps making a great deal of emphasis on the exemplary objectification of essence with divine characteristics, but three different approaches are observed, namely discourse, philosophical and Gnostic, in his works when it comes to the clarification of a meaning for “objectification”. The primary objective of the present study is to explicate Mulla Sadra’s special approach, and to elucidate the aspects rendering it different from the other two perspectives. Naturally, in order to understand a philosophical response thereto, it is necessary to compare it with the other two approaches, especially with the more general and discourse-based approach, so that the differences could be figured out. These three approaches signify three levels of cognizance: A) Sadra’s general and discourse-based approach is expressive of the existential unification of the reasonable perfections with the unit essence of God, which can be seen flowing in the works of the majority of the verdict interpreters. Besides accepting the classification of the characteristics to inherent and non-inherent in his works, Mulla Sadra largely underlines the abstraction of numerous concepts of extended truth, as mental innovation of Muḥaqiq Ṭūsī and Ḥillī. B) The philosophical or specific approach of this Shirazi philosopher is based on the comparison of the divine essence and characteristics of the possible existence and nature. Based on the Sadraean theory of existence originality, each externally present object is firstly and essentially an example of “existence” (with noun and not infinitive meaning), and secondly and transversally an example of a certain nature. Accordingly, the divine essence is firstly and essentially an example of the “existence”, and secondly and transversally an example of the lofty characteristics and beautiful traits; so, what is immediately abstracted from the divine essence is the nominal concept of “existence”. Moreover, the same way that the existence, as held in Sadraean system, features a conditional mode in every substantive conveyance to the weights thereof, the reasonable perfections of the same type as the “existence”, considered as the inherent characteristics thereof, are all examples of built-in non-acquisitive states with existence dependency. These have been abstracted from the unit essence of God in regard of a single aspect. Thus, besides the objectification of the essence by characteristics, there is a single topic involved in the verity of the characteristics, and such a positive trait as “equality of the inherent characteristics concepts” is the attribute of the divine rank. C) Sadra’s Gnostic and specialized approach leads to the denial of the characteristics of the divine essence. Obviously, resembling the essence and characteristics to existence and nature is effective in the elaboration of such a standpoint, but the divine perfections are to be regarded as rank-based conditional states.
