Contemporary Wisdom

A posteriori and quasi-a priori proofs of God's existence in the Holy Quran

Document Type : Biannual Journal

Author

mohammad javad dakami

Assistant Professor, Department of Islamic Studies, Faculty of Humanities, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran.

https://doi.org/10.30465/cw.2026.52253.2112
Abstract
Abstract
Proving the foundational tenets of belief in Islam is possible only through sound rational arguments. The Holy Quran, in its call to monotheism and description of divine attributes, employs rational reasoning, with demonstrative proof (burhan) holding a special place in Quranic arguments due to its soundness in both form and content.
Issue: What types of arguments for theology are present in the Quran? Have a priori (limmi) arguments been used in the Quran to prove and introduce God?
Method: This research, using a descriptive-analytical method and through a study of Quranic verses and authoritative exegeses, examines and analyzes the various types of theological arguments in the Holy Quran.
Findings: The majority of theological arguments in the Quran are a posteriori (inni), proceeding from effect to cause—an approach compatible with the general level of understanding of the Quran's audience. However, considering the definition of an a priori argument and due to the absence of a cause for God, the Quran does not employ strictly a priori arguments. Nonetheless, in explaining and proving God's affirmative and negative attributes, the Quran employs a type of non-a posteriori reasoning, termed "quasi-a priori" arguments in this research.
Conclusion: Contrary to the belief of some researchers, not all theological arguments in the Quran are a posteriori; non-a posteriori (quasi-a priori) arguments are also used for theology. These arguments are primarily structured based on inherent concomitances and essential implications.
Keywords: The Holy Quran, A Posteriori Argument (Burhan Inni), A Priori Argument (Burhan Limmi), Quasi-A Priori Argument, Theology.
 
Introduction
The Holy Qur’an presents itself as a guide for all people and, in order to realize this guidance, calls its audience to reflection and contemplation upon its verses. Accordingly, when addressing people—and especially when arguing for truths—it fully adheres to the general rules of reasoning and logic, and does not put forward anything contrary to intellect and rationality. For this reason, the guidance-oriented verses of the Holy Qur’an are often accompanied by diverse rational arguments in terms of both their material and formal aspects. Philosophers and logicians maintain that among the various types of arguments, demonstration (burhān), due to its reliance on certain premises and syllogistic form, is the most rigorous type of reasoning. Therefore, the Holy Qur’an has also employed numerous demonstrations to prove the existence of God and His essential and active attributes.
This study has been conducted using a descriptive–analytical method through an examination of the verses of the Holy Qur’an, authoritative Qur’anic commentaries, and by drawing upon narrations from the Infallibles (peace be upon them).
 
Materials & Methods
This research has been conducted using a descriptive–analytical method, through the study of the verses of the Holy Qur’an and authoritative exegeses, and by drawing upon the narrations of the Ahl al-Bayt (peace be upon them).
 
Discussion and Results
The main questions addressed in this research are: Why are most of the Qur’anic theistic demonstrations of the innī type? Why has the Qur’an not employed limmī demonstration for knowing God Almighty, and what is the reason for designating some theistic demonstrations as quasi-limmī? The findings of the present study indicate that the widespread use of innī demonstrations in the Holy Qur’an is due to the greater ease with which this type of argument can be understood by the general public, who constitute the primary audience of the Qur’an. The reason for this ease of understanding is that, in innī demonstrations, one of the premises usually has an experiential or innate aspect, the comprehension of which does not require extensive reflection or contemplation. In the Holy Qur’an, this type of demonstration is employed for two main purposes:
Proving the existence of God as the First Cause of all that is other than God;
Proving the affirmative attributes of God Almighty on the basis of the principle “the giver of a thing cannot be devoid of it” (muʿṭī al-shayʾ lā yakūnu fāqidan lahu).
The innī demonstrations of theistic knowledge in the Holy Qur’an are divided into two general categories: cosmic (āfāqī) demonstrations and anthropological or inner (anfusī) demonstrations. In cosmic demonstrations, through reflection on external phenomena (the horizons), the existence of God Almighty and His attributes of beauty and majesty are established. The most important and well-known of these demonstrations is the demonstration of the perfection of creation (burhān itqān al-ṣunʿ). In this demonstration, from the order and astonishing, purposeful creation governing the universe, the existence of an ordering, knowing, powerful, and wise Creator is inferred. A clear example of the demonstration of the perfection of creation in the Holy Qur’an is the argument for the Lordship-based unity of God Almighty in verse 22 of Sūrat al-Anbiyāʾ. This demonstration is expressed with utmost brevity in the form of a conditional syllogism with the negation of the consequent: “Had there been gods in the heavens and the earth other than Allah, both would surely have fallen into ruin.” Since such corruption is not observed, it follows that only one God Almighty rules over the universe.
In the inner demonstrations of theistic knowledge, the human being comes to know the existence of God Almighty by turning inward to his own self. The most important inner demonstration in the Holy Qur’an is the demonstration of fiṭrah (innate nature), which is emphasized in numerous verses. One of the findings of the present research is that, given the definition provided for limmī demonstration, it is not possible to prove the existence of God Almighty through this type of argument, since it is impossible to conceive of a cause that could mediate in proving Him.
However, the Holy Qur’an contains arguments in which reasoning proceeds from one necessary correlate to its necessary consequence, or from one concomitant to another concomitant. Because this method more closely resembles limmī demonstration, it has been termed quasi-limmī demonstration. A clear example of quasi-limmī demonstrations in the Holy Qur’an is reasoning from the Divine Name Allah to His attributes of beauty and majesty—such as His oneness and His having no partner—in the verse “Allah bears witness that there is no deity except Him”, which is known as the Verse of Testimony.
 
Conclusion
Most of the demonstrations in the Holy Qur’an for proving the existence of God Almighty are of the innī type, and these demonstrations are divided into cosmic and inner demonstrations. The most important cosmic demonstration is the demonstration of the perfection of creation, or the argument from order, in which from the order of the phenomena of the world one infers the existence of an ordering, knowing, powerful, and generous Creator. The most important inner demonstration in the Holy Qur’an is that which is referred to as the demonstration of fiṭrah.
Contrary to the view of some researchers, not all theistic demonstrations in the Holy Qur’an are innī; rather, some of the most rigorous Qur’anic demonstrations established for the knowledge of God are of the quasi-limmī type, in which reasoning proceeds from a necessary correlate to its consequence or from one concomitant to another concomitant.
The most important quasi-limmī demonstration of theistic knowledge found in the Holy Qur’an is the demonstration in which the concept of the Divine Name Allah serves as the middle term for establishing His other affirmative and negative attributes.

Keywords

The Holy Quran
A Posteriori Argument
A Priori Argument. Quasi-A Priori Argument
Theology
Subjects
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Contemporary Wisdom
Volume 16, Issue 2
January 2026
Pages 77-106

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